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. 2014 Feb 5;3:2. doi: 10.1186/2046-2395-3-2

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Copyright © 2014 Velarde; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

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Molecular targets of estrogen in regulating mitochondrial function. 1. Estrogen binds to nuclear estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) to directly regulate tissue-specific expression of genes necessary for cellular function. 2. Estrogen binds to nuclear ERs and regulates expression of mitochondrial genes by promoting gene expression of transcription factor NRF1 and enhancing transcriptional activity of PGC1α. 3. Estrogen binds to membrane ERs and activates signaling cascades that protect mitochondria from oxidative damage. 4. Estrogen binds to mitochondrial ERs and limits ROS generation in the mitochondria. 5. Estrogen binds to mitochondrial ERs and regulates transcription of mitochondrial-encoded mitochondrial genes.