FIG. 1.

Technologies for cellular force measurements and mechanobiology. (A) On an elastic substrate, migrating cells exert forces that wrinkle the substrate or change the location of embedded fiducial beads; (B) elastic substrate with fluorescence beads embedded measures cell-generated extracellular stress; (C) microfabricated posts/needles measure cell generated stress by bending the posts; (D) atomic force microscopy measures the cortical stiffness and topology; (E) laser trap measures the unfolding force of an isolated protein; and (F) magnetic tweezers pulling on an isolated protein.