Table 1.
Possible health hazards of waterpipe smoking (from the smoke, the coal or the pipe system)
| Health risks | Reference | |
|---|---|---|
| Hazardous elements in smoke | ||
| CO carbon monoxide | • Subtle cardiovascular disorders | [34,38,64,82] |
| • Neurobehavioral effects | ||
| Tar | • Tumourgenicity | [1,10,38] |
| • Mutagenicity | ||
| Nicotine | • Nicotine intoxication | [36,38,64,83] |
| • Accelerated atherosclerosis | ||
| • Stroke | ||
| • Hypertension | ||
| • Delayed wound healing | ||
| • Reproductive and perinatal disorders | ||
| Volatile carcinogenic nitrosamines | • Bronchogenic carcinoma | [66–73] |
| • Lung cancer | ||
| • Oral cancer | ||
| • Bladder cancer | ||
| Volatile aldehydes | • Cancer | [45] |
| Polonium 210 | • Bronchial cancer | [46,47] |
| Hazardous elements in coal | ||
| Arsenic | • Hypertension | [1,38,84] |
| • Diabetes mellitus | ||
| • Lung cancer | ||
| • Bladder cancer | ||
| • Keratosis | ||
| • Hyperpigmentation | ||
| Nickel | • Allergic reactions | [1,85] |
| • Hypersensitivity | ||
| • Headaches | ||
| • Pulmonary cancers | ||
| • Hepatic toxicities | ||
| • Renal toxicities | ||
| • Asthma | ||
| • Bronchitis | ||
| • Rhinitis | ||
| • Sinusitis | ||
| • Pneumoconiosis | ||
| Chromium | • Lung cancer | [1,86] |
| Cobalt | • Allergic dermatitis | [1,87] |
| • Rhinitis | ||
| • Asthma | ||
| • Intense alveolitis | ||
| • Pulmonary fibrosis | ||
| Lead | • Atherosclerosis | [1,88–90] |
| • Neurotoxic effects | ||
| • Male infertility | ||
| Hazardous elements in pipe | ||
| Bacteria: | ||
| • Mycobacterium tuberculosis | • Tuberculosis | [62,63] |
| Viruses: | ||
| • Herpes | • Irritated skin | [62,63] |
| • Blisters | ||
| • Skin ulcers | ||
| • Fever | ||
| • Hepatitis | • Liver damage | [62,63] |