Table 1.
The use of micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities as markers for labor and environmental risk.
| Labor/environmental risk | Age (years) | MN | CC | KR | PN | KL | NBUDs | BNC | CA stained | Country reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Banana harvester (pesticide) | 1000 (ND) | Costa Rica, 2004 [49] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 40) | 16–50 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 0.04* | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.04 | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 44) | 33.2 | 0.03 | 0.003 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.1 | 0.02 | 0.04 | ||
|
| ||||||||||
| Floriculture (pesticide) | 1000 (1) | Mexico, 2000 [50] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 30) | 18–63 | 10.01 ± 0.03* | 19 ± 0.0 | 2 ± 0.0* | 4 ± 0.0* | 8 ± 0.0* | 0.7 ± 0.0 | 25 ± 0.0 | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 30) | 0.3 ± 0.02 | 19 ± 0.0 | 0.5 ± 0.0 | 2 ± 0.0 | 3 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.0 | 16 ± 0.0 | |||
|
| ||||||||||
| Pesticide production | 2000 (6) | India, 2006 [51] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 54) | 35.1 ± 5.2 | 1.2 ± 0.7* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 54) | 33.4 ± 5.5 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Nurses (cytostatic drugs) | 1000 (2) | Cuba, 2004 [48] | ||||||||
| Exposed | 39 | 7.3* | 7.0* | ND | 5.09* | 9.1* | ND | 8.09* | ||
| Nonexposed | 4.5 | 1.5 | 4.1 | 1.8 | 4.6 | |||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Cone beam computed tomography | 2000 (1) | Brazil, 2010 [52] | ||||||||
| Before exposure (n = 19) | 26.8 ± 5 | 0.04 ± 0.05 | ND | 7.4 ± 46 (KR, PN, KL) | ND | ND | ||||
| After exposure (n = 19) | 0.05 ± 0.06 | 17.8 ± 5.4* (KR, PN, KL) | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Chemical products | 1000 (2) | Cuba, 2005 [53] | ||||||||
| Nonexposed (n = 20) | 36.2 ± 5.9 | 5.6 | 4.2 | 7.4 | 4.5 | ND | 9.2 | |||
| Carbon dioxide (n = 20) | 52.2 ± 7.0 | 5.4 | 6.5* | 5.5 | 5.6 | 5.2 | ||||
| Ammonia (n = 15) | 35.7 ± 5.7 | 8.1* | 8.3* | 7.7 | 7.6 | 10.0* | ||||
| Welding vapor (Fe, Zn, Ni, and Cr) (n = 11) | 40.7 ± 8.7 | 8.6* | 9.5 | ND | 8.5 | 10.0* | 13.2* | |||
|
| ||||||||||
| Welder (Fe, Zn, Ni, and Cr vapor) | 1000 (2) | Colombia, 2011 [54] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 36) | ND | 0.5 ± 0.1* | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.2 ± 0.04* | 13.7 ± 0.7* | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 25) | 0.2 ± 0.07 | 0.05 ± 0.02 | 5.6 ± 0.3 | |||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Children with metal crowns (nickel) | 1000 (2) | Mexico, 2013 [55] | ||||||||
| Day 1 (n = 37) | 4–11 | 4.6 ± 0.15 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Day 45 (n = 37) | 6.2 ± 1.7 | 6.7 ± 0.16* | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Lead battery factory workers (smokers) | 1000 (2) | India, 2011 [56] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 62) | 38.0 + 7.0 | 10.1* | ND | 18.8* | 46.0 | 6.8 | ND | |||
| Nonexposed (n = 60) | 42.2 + 8.0 | 3.6 ± 0.1 | 8.6 ± 0.4 | 32.4 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.4 | |||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Chrome plating workers (hexavalent Cr) | 1500 (3) | India, 2011 [57] | ||||||||
| Smokers exposed (n = 24) | 43.4 ± 3.7 | 4.5 ± 1.1* | ND | 36.2 ± 5.9 | 5.1 ± 0.4 | 128.9 ± 8.4 | 7.1 ± 1.5 | 7.2 ± 0.8 | ||
| Exposed (n = 20) | 37.6 ± 2.9 | 3.1 ± 1.1* | 52.2 ± 7.0 | 3.6 ± 0.3 | 87 ± 4.2 | 5.0 ± 0.7 | 6.9 ± 0.9 | |||
| Smokers nonexposed (n = 21) | 42.5 ± 2.2 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 9.1 ± 2.9 | 2.6 ± 0.2 | 39.2 ± 2.4 | 2.5 ± 1.4 | 4.7 ± 0.8 | |||
| Nonexposed (n = 19) | 40.2 ± 3.7 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 6.0 ± 1.56 | 1.8 ± 0.7 | 26.3 ± 2.5 | 3.2 ± 1.5 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | |||
|
| ||||||||||
| Urban soil (arsenic and lead) | 1000 (ND) | Mexico, 2013 [58] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 98) | 4–10 | 2.2 ± 1.6* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 42) | 1.06 ± 0.74 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Glass workers (arsenic) | 18–34 | 0.4 ± 0.1 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 2000 (1) | India, 2006 [59] |
| Exposed (n = 200) | 35–68 | 1.1 ± 0.1* | ||||||||
| Nonexposed (n = 165) | 18–34 | 0.1 ± 0.04 | ||||||||
| 35–68 | 0.2 ± 0.05 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Outdoor painters | 3000 (1) | Mexico, 2000 [60] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 25) | 25–60 | 1.1 ± 0.02* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 25) | 0.3 ± 0.01 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Commercial painters | 3000 (1) | India, 2010 [61] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 30) | 20–50 | 17.7 ± 3.2 | ND | 23.8 ± 4.2* | ND | 21.3 ± 4.5* | 10.4 ± 3.4* | 25.7 ± 4.5* | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 30) | 2.5 ± 1.3 | 2.7 ± 0.6 | 2.7 ± 0.8 | 0.6 ± 0.4 | 2.3 ± 0.9 | |||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Shoe workers (toluene and others) | 1000 (1) | Mexico, 2009 [62] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 34) | 18–65 | 0.1∗♦ | 5.0♦ | 0.0♦ | 1.0♦ | 0.2♦ | 0.1♦ | 0.3♦ | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 34) | 0.0♦ | 6.1♦ | 0.0♦ | 0.7♦ | 0.0♦ | 0.0♦ | 0.2♦ | |||
|
| ||||||||||
| Tannery workers | 2000 (2) | India, 2011 [63] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 84) | 37.4 ± 8.6 | 7.1 ± 1.1* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 52) | 37.6 ± 8.4 | 4.0 ± 1.6 | ||||||||
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| ||||||||||
| Power plant processing poultry litter workers | 2000 (3) | Austria, 2012 [64] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 21) | 41.2 ± 9.4 | No difference | No difference | * | * | No difference | No difference | No difference | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 25) | 41.1 ± 8.1 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Formaldehyde | 1000 (1) | Portugal, 2010 [65] | ||||||||
| Pathology laboratory (n = 50) | 33.8 ± 8.2 | 0.6 ± 1.7 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Formaldehyde-based resins production factory (n = 30) | 1.2 ± 1.5* | |||||||||
| Nonexposed (n = 85) | 35.7 ± 9.4 | 0.1 ± 0.4 | ||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Hairdressers | 2000 (3) | Brazil, 2010 [66] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 50) | 37.4 ± 2.0 | 2.0 ± 3.6* | ND | ND | ND | ND | 9.0 ± 3.8 | 8.5 ± 5.0 | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 50) | 37.0 ± 12.0 | 0.3 ± 1.0 | 5.9 ± 2.6 | 5.2 ± 4.7 | ||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Thermoelectric plant workers | 1000 (1) | Portugal, 2012 [67] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 44) | 36.2 ± 9.6 | 1.8 ± 1.6* | ND | 82.4‰ (karyorrhexis, pyknosis, and karyolysis)* | ND | ND | ||||
| Office nonexposed (n = 47) | 42.1 ± 7.6 | 0.2 ± 0.4 | 58.3‰ (karyorrhexis, pyknosis, and karyolysis) | |||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Calcite factory workers | 1000 (2) | Turkey, 2010 [68] | ||||||||
| Smokers + CaCO3 (n = 25) | 30.7 ± 0.7 | 11.4 ± 1.1 | 3.0 ± 0.2 | 1.9 ± 0.4 | 15.1 ± 1.5 | 11.2 ± 0.8 | ||||
| Nonsmokers + CaCO3 (n = 25) | 4.6 ± 1.1 | ND | 2.2 ± 0.2 | ND | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 4.0 ± 1.5 | 6.9 ± 0.8 | |||
| Smokers Nonexposed (n = 25) | 30.6 ± 1.2 | 25.5 ± 1.1 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 3.5 ± 1.5 | 4.7 ± 0.8 | ||||
| Nonsmokers (n = 25) | 15.1 ± 1.1 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 5.2 ± 1.5 | 3.4 ± 0.8 | |||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Fisher folks/mine tailings | 1000 (1) | Philippines, 2010 [69] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 47) | 8–70 | 7.7 ± 2.9* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 21) | 2.2 ± 1.5 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Mechanic and car painters | 3000 (1) | Brazil, 2000 [70] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 60) | 15–50 | 8.2 ± 4.3* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 80) | 2.1 ± 1.6 | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Firefighter | ND | ND | 1000 (3) | India, 2005 [71] | ||||||
| Exposed (n = 47) | 43.2 | 3.9 ± 0.1* | 24.1 ± 1.4* | 2.8 ± 0.4* | 152.6 ± 10.1* | 5.6 ± 0.4* | ||||
| Nonexposed/office (n = 40) | 44 | 1.2 ± 0.01 | 6.45 ± 0.76 | 0.62 ± 0.13 | 21.5 ± 2.2 | 1.7 ± 0.2 | ||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Fire breathers | 1000 (4) | Mexico, 1998 [36] | ||||||||
| Exposed (n = 5) | 0.8 ± 0.7 | 2.4 ± 2.9* | 0.4 ± 0.6* | 0.7 ± 0.8* | 0.8 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 2.3* | ||||
| Exposed + smokers (n = 3) | 28–54 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 2.9 ± 1.1 | 4.4 ± 0.8 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 0 | 0.4 ± 0.5 | 5.8 ± 1.1 | ||
| Nonexposed (n = 13) | 1.1 ± 0.9 | 1.3 ± 1.6 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 1.4 | 0.7 ± 0.8 | 2.7 ± 1.7 | ||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Fuel dispenser | 1000 (1) | Turkey, 2003 [72] | ||||||||
| Smokers (n = 25) | 1.6 ± 0.08* | 0.5 ± 0.09 | 0.4 ± 0.1 | 2.3 ± 0.4 | ||||||
| Nonsmokers (n = 25) | 1.1 ± 0.06 | 0.3 ± 0.09 | 0.3 ± 0.0 | 1.7 ± 0.05 | ||||||
| Nonexposed | ND | ND | ND | |||||||
| Smokers (n = 25) | 0.6 ± 0.03 | 1.8 ± 0.1 | 1.7 ± 0.1 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | ||||||
| Nonsmokers (n = 25) | 0.2 ± 0.02 | 1.3 ± 0.1 | 1.5 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.0 | ||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Fuel dispenser | 1000 (2) | India, 2010 [73] | ||||||||
| Smokers (n = 56) | 17–35 | 9.8 ± 2.0* | ND | 19.8 ± 03* | 41.2 ± 0.5 | ND | 7.8 ± 1.0* | |||
| Nonsmokers (n = 64) | 7.1 ± 3.1 | 7.8 ± 0.5 | 32.8 ± 0.2 | 4.8 ± 1.0 | ||||||
| Nonexposed | ||||||||||
| Smokers (n = 30) | 2.9 ± 0.01 | 9.6 ± 1.1 | 29.4 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.4 | ||||||
| Nonsmokers (n = 75) | 2.1 ± 0.02 | 7.6 ± 0.7 | 24.4 ± 1.1 | 2.8 ± 0.1 | ||||||
|
| ||||||||||
| Fuel dispenser (benzene) | 1000 (5) | India, 2011 [74] | ||||||||
| (n = 200) | ND | ND | ||||||||
| 1.500 μg m−3 | 37.5 ± 6.3 | 5.1 ± 0.3* | 1.1 ± 0.3* | 2.2 ± 0.1* | 1.0 ± 0.0 | 3.0 ± 0.01* | ||||
| 1.100 μg m−3 | 34.8 ± 6.2 | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 0.03 ± 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 1.04 ± 0.2 | ||||
MN: micronuclei; CC: condensed chromatin; KR: karyorrhexis, PN: pyknosis; KL: karyolysis; NBUDs: nuclear buds; BN: binucleated cells; AC: analyzed cells; ND: no data. All values are represented as mean ± SD, except for values marked with ♦represent median. *Statistical difference when compared with reference group.