Table 1.
Potential biomarkers in stroke.
| Biomarker | Changes in plasma level | Association | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vascular markers | |||
| ADMA | Increased in IS and HS | Poor outcome | [8–10] |
| ET-1 | Increased in IS and HS | Lesion size | [15,16] |
| No change in IS | None | [17] | |
| vWF | Increased in IS | Risk of stroke | [21,23] |
| No change in IS | None | [22] | |
| tPA and PAI-1 | Increased in IS | Poor prognosis and re-occurrence | [25] |
| No change in mild or moderate | None | [26,27] | |
| D-dimer | Higher in CE stroke | Poor outcome | [32–34] |
| No effect | [36] | ||
| MMP-9 | Increased in IS and HS | Hemorrhage transformation and poor prognosis | [40–42] |
| c-Fn | Increased in IS | Hemorrhagic transformation | [40,44,45] |
| PENK-A | Increased in IS | Severity of cerebral injury | [46] |
| Metabolic markers | |||
| Cholesterol | <160 mg/dl in population | Risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke | [50] |
| TC >280 mg/dl | Risk of cerebral infarction | [50,51] | |
| Albumin | Reduced in IS | Poor outcome | [53] |
| Cortisol | Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [57,58] |
| Hcy | Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [65,67] |
| No effect | [66] | ||
| Oxidative markers | |||
| SOD | Reduced in IS | Poor outcome | [68] |
| NO | Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [69] |
| Increased in IS | None | [70] | |
| Bilirubin | High in population | Reduced risk of stroke | [71,72] |
| Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [73,74] | |
| Inflammatory markers | |||
| Lp-PLA2 | High in population | Risk of stroke occurrence | [76,77] |
| Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [78] | |
| High level after tPA treatment | Fail to re-canalize | [79] | |
| CRP | Increased in IS | Poor outcome | [80] |
| No change | None | [81,82] | |
| PTX3 | Higher in IS | Increased mortality | [85,86] |
| IL-6, TNF-α | Increased in IS and HS | Poor outcome | [87] |
| S100B | Increased in IS | Lesion size and poor outcome | [90] |
| sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 | Increased or no change | Early death or not | [91–93] |
| Newly intensively studied markers | |||
| miRNA-210 | Higher in IS | Good outcome | [100] |
| Copeptin | Higher in IS | Poor outcome | [101–106] |
CE: Cardioembolic; c-Fn: Cellular-fibronectin; CRP: C-reactive protein; Hcy: Homocysteine; HS: Hemorrhagic stroke; IS: Ischemic stroke; Lp-PLA2: Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2; MMP: Matrix metalloproteinase; PAI-1: Plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1; PENK-A: Precursor neuropeptides proenkephalin A; PTX3: Pentraxin 3; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; TC: Total cholesterol; tPA: Tissue plasminogen activator.