Table 3.
Candidate markers related with atrial fibrillation.
| Name | Protein Accession # | Sample Size | Biomarker Levels in AF | Main Function | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adiponectin | Q15848 | 384 | Persistent AF > paroxysmal AF and control subjects | Adipokine involved in the control of fat metabolism and insulin sensitivity. | [64, 65] |
| ADMA | - | 42 | Acute AF > chronic AF and controls | Endogen inhibitor of NOS. ADMA contributes to thromboembolism in AF. | [47] |
| Ang-2 | Q15123 | 59 | AF > control subjects | Angiogenic factor. | [66] |
| Apelin | Q9ULZ1 | 166 | AF < sinus rhythm or control subjects | May have a role in the control of body fluid homeostasis. | [67,68] |
| CD63* | P08962 | 121 | AF > control subjects | Platelet activation marker. | [69] |
| E-selectin* | P16581 | 145 | AF > control subjects | Marker of endothelial activation. | [42] |
| Fibrinopeptide A | P02671 | 83 | AF ↑ | Released as part of blood clotting process. It reflects thrombin activity. | [59] |
| IL-18 | Q14116 | 56 | Persistent AF > paroxysmal AF and sinus rhythm | Pro-inflammatory cytokine. | [41] |
| MMP-1 | P03956 | 48 | AF < control subjects | Cleaves collagen types I, II and III. | [70] |
| MMP-2 | P08253 | 364 | AF > sinus rhythm | Degrades extracellular matrix in remodeling of vasculature, angiogenesis and tissue repair. | [43,71] |
| MMP-3 | P08254 | 86 | AF > sinus rhythm | Degrades fibronectin, laminin, gelatins and collagens. | [71] |
| MMP-9 | P14780 | 364 | AF > control and sinus rhythm subjects | Proteolyses extracellular matrix. | [41,71,72] |
| NPY | P01303 | 222 | AF > control subjects | Implicated in the control of feeding and in secretion of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone. | [72] |
| Osteoprotegerin | O00300 | 2863 | Associated with AF | Neutralizes osteoclastogenesis. | [73] |
| PF-4 | P02776 | 26 | AF > control subjects | Marker of platelet activation in AF patients. | [44] |
| PMP | - | 20 | AF > control subjects | PMPs play a role in hemostatic response to vascular injury. | [46] |
| Prothrombin fragment 1.2 (F1+2) | - | 48 | AF > control subjects | Marker of thrombogenesis | [59] |
| p-selectin (CD62P) | P16109 | 121 | AF > control subjects | Mediates the interaction of activated endothelial cells or platelets with leukocytes | [69] |
| SDMA | - | 394 | AF > non-AF | It influences NO formation via inhibition of L-arginine uptake. | [48] |
| sVCAM-1 | P19320 | 278 | Associated with AF | Important in cell-cell mediation. | [43] |
| sP-selectin | P16109 | 90 | AF > control subjects | Mediates interaction of activated endothelial cells or platelets with leukocytes. | [45] |
| TGF-β | P01137 | 107 | AF < non-AF | Controls proliferation, differentiation and other functions in many cell types. | [74] |
| TIMP-1 | P01033 | 134 | AF > sinus rhythm patients and control subjects | Irreversibly inactivates metalloproteinases. | [70, 71] |
| Troponin I | P48788 | 6189 | AF ↑ | Inhibitory subunit of troponin. Increased troponin I associated with an increase in the risk of stroke or systemic embolism and vascular events. | [75] |
| VEGF | P15692 | 72 | Paroxysmal and persistent AF > control subjects | Pro-angiogenic factor. | [76] |
Ang: Angiopoietin; ADMA: Asymmetric dimethylarginine; SDMA: Symmetric dimethylarginine: CITP: Carboxy-terminal telopeptide of collagen type I; MMP: Matrix metalloproteinase; TIMP-I: Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases; IL: Interleukin; NPY: Neuropeptide Y; PF-4: Platelet factor 4; PMP: Platelet microparticle; TF: Transferrin; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor beta; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; sVCAM-1: soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; sCD40L: soluble CD40 ligand; NOS: Nitric oxide synthase.
*
Candidate marker with controversial results among studies.