Table 1.
ECC pattern according to newborn characteristics, feeding practices, oral hygiene habits, and access to dental services
|
Variable or practice |
|
ECC |
S-ECC |
dmft Mean ± SD |
dt Mean ± SD |
dmfs Mean ± SD |
ds Mean ± SD |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | % | N | % | N | % | |||||
|
Social demographics and newborn characteristics
| ||||||||||
| Age, months | ||||||||||
| 36-47 |
161 |
31.2 |
14 |
8.7 |
2 |
1.2 |
0.17 ± 0.78 |
0.17 ± 0.78 |
0.30 ± 1.65 |
0.25 ± 1.6 |
| 48-59 |
196 |
38.1 |
37 |
18.9 |
6 |
3.1 |
0.49 ± 1.38 |
0.45 ± 1.29 |
0.96 ± 3.09 |
0.86 ± 2.98 |
| 60-71 |
158 |
30.7 |
47 |
29.8 |
6 |
3.8 |
0.89 ± 1.78 |
0.86 ± 1.77 |
1.71 ± 3.81 |
1.68 ± 3.81 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 22.89; p < 0.001 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.324 |
F = 10.99 p < 0.001 |
F = 10.86 p < 0.001 |
F = 8.78 p < 0.001 |
F = 9.40 p < 0.001 |
||
| Gender | ||||||||||
| Male |
262 |
50.9 |
54 |
20.6 |
8 |
3.1 |
0.58 ± 1.51 |
0.54 ± 1.46 |
1.12 ± 3.24 |
1.03 ± 3.18 |
| Female |
253 |
49.1 |
44 |
17.4 |
6 |
2.4 |
0.44 ± 1.27 |
0.43 ± 1.25 |
0.85 ± 2.82 |
0.81 ± 2.78 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 0.87; p = 0.352 |
χ
2
= 0.23; p = 0.634 |
t-test = -1.15; p = 0.251 |
t-test = -0.923; p = 0.355 |
t-test = -1; p = 0.317 |
t-test = -0.85; p = 0.395 |
||
| Father’s age, years | ||||||||||
| ≤35 |
177 |
35.1 |
36 |
20.3 |
5 |
2.8 |
0.6 ± 1.57 |
0.6 ± 1.57 |
1.24 ± 3.72 |
1.2 ± 3.71 |
| 36-40 |
160 |
31.7 |
31 |
19.4 |
7 |
4.4 |
0.52 ± 1.37 |
0.44 ± 1.25 |
1.04 ± 2.88 |
0.86 ± 2.72 |
| 41-45 |
125 |
24.7 |
23 |
18.4 |
2 |
1.6 |
0.46 ± 1.35 |
0.46 ± 1.35 |
0.78 ± 2.63 |
0.78 ± 2.63 |
| ≥46 |
43 |
8.5 |
8 |
18.6 |
0 |
- |
0.37 ± 0.95 |
0.37 ± 0.95 |
0.56 ± 1.58 |
0.56 ± 1.58 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 0.18; p = 0.676 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.446 |
F = 0.45; p = 0.714 |
F = 0.6; p = 0.618 |
F = 0.87; p = 0.458 |
F = 0.81; p = 0.486 |
||
| Mother’s age, years | ||||||||||
| ≤30 |
105 |
20.7 |
32 |
30.5 |
9 |
8.6 |
1.02 ± 2.12 |
0.91 ± 2.02 |
1.91 ± 4.91 |
1.81 ± 4.86 |
| 31-35 |
166 |
32.7 |
24 |
14.5 |
1 |
0.6 |
0.3 ± 0.86 |
0.3 ± 0.86 |
0.71 ± 2.07 |
0.61 ± 1.95 |
| 36-40 |
171 |
33.6 |
31 |
18.1 |
4 |
2.3 |
0.49 ± 1.39 |
0.49 ± 1.39 |
0.91 ± 2.73 |
0.87 ± 2.7 |
| ≥41 |
66 |
13 |
10 |
15.2 |
0 |
- |
0.32 ± 0.88 |
0.32 ± 0.88 |
0.5 ± 1.52 |
0.5 ± 1.52 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 4.94; p = 0.026 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.001 |
F = 6.43; p = 0.0003 |
F = 4.87; p = 0.002 |
F = 4.35; p = 0.005 |
F = 4.16; p = 0.006 |
||
| Child order | ||||||||||
| First |
123 |
30.9 |
19 |
15.5 |
4 |
3.3 |
0.46 ± 1.45 |
0.41 ± 1.36 |
0.96 ± 3.48 |
0.88 ± 3.44 |
| Second |
213 |
51 |
47 |
23.2 |
5 |
2.5 |
0.56 ± 1.4 |
0.54 ± 1.38 |
1.08 ± 3.05 |
0.99 ± 2.96 |
| Third or more |
72 |
18.1 |
12 |
16.7 |
3 |
4.2 |
0.58 ± 1.55 |
0.58 ± 1.55 |
1.07 ± 2.74 |
1.01 ± 2.72 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 0.3; p = 0.583 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.683 |
F = 0.25; p = 0.78 |
F = 0.47; p = 0.627 |
F = 0.06; p = 0.939 |
F = 0.07; p = 0.935 |
||
| Father’s education level | ||||||||||
| None/elementary school |
16 |
3.2 |
6 |
37.5 |
1 |
6.3 |
1.19 ± 2.2 |
1.19 ± 2.2 |
2.25 ± 5 |
2.25 ± 5 |
| Junior high school |
183 |
36.6 |
45 |
24.6 |
8 |
4.4 |
0.68 ± 1.6 |
0.66 ± 1.59 |
1.28 ± 3.2 |
1.2 ± 3.15 |
| High school |
246 |
49.2 |
32 |
13 |
4 |
1.6 |
0.35 ± 1.18 |
0.32 ± 1.09 |
0.74 ± 2.83 |
0.67 ± 2.75 |
| University |
55 |
11 |
13 |
23.6 |
0 |
- |
0.42 ± 0.9 |
0.42 ± 0.9 |
0.58 ± 1.4 |
0.58 ± 1.4 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 4.52; p = 0.03 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.112 |
F = 3.45; p = 0.016 |
F = 3.87; p = 0.009 |
F = 2.50; p = 0.059 |
F = 2.53; p = 0.056 |
||
| Mother’s education level | ||||||||||
| None/elementary school |
16 |
3.2 |
5 |
31.3 |
1 |
6.3 |
0.69 ± 1.74 |
0.69 ± 1.74 |
1.19 ± 3.71 |
1.19 ± 3.71 |
| Junior high school |
141 |
27.8 |
37 |
26.2 |
8 |
5.7 |
0.83 ± 1.82 |
0.82 ± 1.81 |
1.58 ± 3.77 |
1.5 ± 3.72 |
| High school |
268 |
53 |
39 |
14.6 |
4 |
1.5 |
0.36 ± 1.14 |
0.33 ± 1.07 |
0.69 ± 2.56 |
0.61 ± 2.49 |
| University |
81 |
16 |
15 |
18.5 |
0 |
- |
0.36 ± 0.88 |
0.35 ± 0.88 |
0.73 ± 2.07 |
0.72 ± 2.08 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 5.10; p = 0.024 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.019 |
F = 4.11; p = 0.007 |
F = 4.65; p = 0.003 |
F = 3.08; p = 0.027 |
F = 3.09; p = 0.027 |
||
| Maternal age at delivery, years | ||||||||||
| ≤25 |
105 |
20.8 |
33 |
31.4 |
9 |
8.6 |
1.06 ± 2.12 |
0.95 ± 2.03 |
2.05 ± 4.9 |
1.92 ± 4.86 |
| 26-30 |
179 |
35.4 |
31 |
17.3 |
2 |
1.1 |
0.35 ± 0.95 |
0.35 ± 0.95 |
0.75 ± 2.2 |
0.67 ± 2.11 |
| 31-35 |
158 |
31.3 |
23 |
16.5 |
3 |
1.9 |
0.47 ± 1.38 |
0.47 ± 1.38 |
0.85 ± 2.68 |
0.82 ± 2.65 |
| ≥36 |
63 |
12.5 |
8 |
12.7 |
0 |
- |
0.24 ± 0.73 |
0.24 ± 0.73 |
0.37 ± 1.21 |
0.37 ± 1.21 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 9.36; p = 0.002 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.003 |
F = 7.1; p < 0.001 |
F = 5.48; p = 0.001 |
F = 5.64; p = 0.001 |
F = 5.18; p = 0.002 |
||
|
Infant feeding practices
| ||||||||||
| History and duration of breastfeeding, months | ||||||||||
| No |
95 |
19.5 |
15 |
15.8 |
1 |
1.1 |
0.38 ± 1.08 |
0.38 ± 1.08 |
0.69 ± 2.1 |
0.69 ± 2.1 |
| ≤ 4 |
150 |
30.8 |
28 |
18.7 |
6 |
4 |
0.59 ± 1.68 |
0.56 ± 1.67 |
1.25 ± 4.05 |
1.19 ± 4.03 |
| 5-10 |
115 |
23.6 |
14 |
12.2 |
0 |
- |
0.22 ± 0.62 |
0.22 ± 0.62 |
0.37 ± 1.03 |
0.31 ± 0.96 |
| 11-19 |
62 |
12.7 |
13 |
20.1 |
0 |
- |
0.44 ± 1.07 |
0.44 ± 1.07 |
0.94 ± 2.47 |
0.76 ± 2.26 |
| ≥ 20 |
65 |
13.4 |
20 |
30.8 |
6 |
9.2 |
1.06 ± 2.08 |
1.03 ± 2.03 |
2.06 ± 4.3 |
2.02 ± 4.25 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 4.10; p = 0.043 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.002 |
F = 4.24; p = 0.002 |
F = 3.95; p = 0.004 |
F = 3.66; p = 0.006 |
F = 3.75; p = 0.005 |
||
| Non-nutritive sucking habits (finger or pacifier) | ||||||||||
| No |
473 |
93.8 |
87 |
18.4 |
14 |
2.9 |
0.51 ± 1.42 |
0.48 ± 1.38 |
1 ± 3.1 |
0.93 ± 3.05 |
| Yes |
37 |
7.2 |
9 |
24.3 |
0 |
- |
0.49 ± 1.07 |
0.49 ± 1.07 |
0.76 ± 2.3 |
0.76 ± 2.3 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 0.79; p = 0.374 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.613 |
t-test = 0.09; p = 0.93 |
t-test = -0.02; p = 0.985 |
t-test = 0.47; p = 0.641 |
t-test = 0.28; p = 0.781 |
||
| Bottle feeding | ||||||||||
| No |
79 |
15.7 |
19 |
24.1 |
6 |
7.6 |
0.89 ± 2.03 |
0.89 ± 2.03 |
1.84 ± 4.35 |
1.84 ± 4.35 |
| Yes |
423 |
84.3 |
77 |
18.2 |
8 |
1.9 |
0.44 ± 1.25 |
0.41 ± 1.2 |
0.84 ± 2.74 |
0.76 ± 2.67 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 1.47; p = 0.225 |
χ
2
= 7.99; p = 0.005 |
t-test = 2.66; p = 0.008 |
t-test = 2.9; p = 0.004 |
t-test = 2.66; p = 0.008 |
t-test = 2.93; p = 0.004 |
||
| Sleep with sweetened bottle or pacifier | ||||||||||
| No |
412 |
80.8 |
71 |
17.2 |
12 |
2.9 |
0.47 ± 1.34 |
0.44 ± 1.3 |
0.9 ± 2.83 |
0.82 ± 2.77 |
| Yes |
98 |
19.2 |
25 |
25.5 |
2 |
2 |
0.67 ± 1.59 |
0.65 ± 1.59 |
1.35 ± 3.81 |
1.31 ± 3.8 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 3.55; p = 0.06 |
Fisher’s exact p = 1 |
t-test = -1.32; p = 0.187 |
t-test = -1.38; p = 0.167 |
t-test = -1.32; p = 0.188 |
t-test = -1.44; p = 0.151 |
||
| Start using cup, months | ||||||||||
| ≤ 12 |
284 |
59.9 |
46 |
16.2 |
7 |
2.5 |
0.42 ± 1.3 |
0.39 ± 1.24 |
0.77 ± 2.59 |
0.72 ± 2.56 |
| 13-18 |
58 |
12.2 |
11 |
19 |
1 |
1.7 |
0.52 ± 1.42 |
0.52 ± 1.42 |
1.34 ± 3.67 |
1.16 ± 3.55 |
| ≥ 19 |
132 |
27.9 |
33 |
25 |
4 |
3 |
0.64 ± 1.43 |
0.61 ± 1.4 |
1.1 ± 2.96 |
1.08 ± 2.92 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 4.44; p = 0.035 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.912 |
F = 1.14; p = 0.321 |
F = 1.35; p = 0.26 |
F = 1.31; p = 0.27 |
F = 1.08; p = 0.341 |
||
| Sweets consumption | ||||||||||
| Never |
20 |
4.1 |
1 |
5.0 |
0 |
- |
0.05 ± 0.22 |
0.05 ± 0.22 |
0.05 ± 0.22 |
0.05 ± 0.22 |
| Less than once a day |
220 |
44.6 |
39 |
17.7 |
6 |
2.7 |
0.46 ± 1.31 |
0.43 ± 1.26 |
0.82 ± 2.56 |
0.77 ± 2.52 |
| At least once a day |
253 |
51.3 |
51 |
20.2 |
8 |
3.2 |
0.58 ± 1.52 |
0.56 ± 1.5 |
1.19 ± 3.54 |
1.09 ± 3.47 |
| |
|
|
Fisher’s exact p = 0.241 |
Fisher’s exact p = 1 |
F = 1.51; p = 0.222 |
F = 1.57; p = 0.21 |
F = 1.79; p = 0.168 |
F = 1.54; p = 0.215 |
||
|
Oral hygiene habits
| ||||||||||
| Toothbrushing habits | ||||||||||
| Less than once a day |
144 |
28.5 |
35 |
24.3 |
4 |
2.8 |
0.59 ± 1.49 |
0.57 ± 1.46 |
1.16 ± 3.28 |
1.08 ± 3.23 |
| Once a day |
210 |
41.5 |
32 |
15.2 |
6 |
2.9 |
0.44 ± 1.36 |
0.43 ± 1.34 |
0.85 ± 2.96 |
0.78 ± 2.89 |
| More than once a day |
152 |
30 |
31 |
20.4 |
4 |
2.6 |
0.56 ± 1.4 |
0.51 ± 1.33 |
1.07 ± 3 |
1.02 ± 2.98 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 0.67; p = 0.415 |
Fisher’s exact p = 1 |
F = 0.55; p = 0.576 |
F = 0.44; p = 0.647 |
F = 0.47; p = 0.623 |
F = 0.49; p = 0.612 |
||
| Start toothbrushing, months | ||||||||||
| ≤12 |
76 |
15.8 |
14 |
18.4 |
3 |
4 |
0.61 ± 1.71 |
0.61 ± 1.71 |
1.28 ± 3.62 |
1.2 ± 3.58 |
| 13-24 |
219 |
45.4 |
33 |
15.1 |
2 |
0.9 |
0.37 ± 1.09 |
0.34 ± 1.02 |
0.73 ± 2.32 |
0.64 ± 2.22 |
| ≥25 |
187 |
38.8 |
42 |
22.5 |
7 |
3.7 |
0.61 ± 1.48 |
0.58 ± 1.44 |
1.1 ± 3.26 |
1.05 ± 3.23 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
for trend = 1.57; p = 0.21 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.087 |
F = 1.91; p = 0.15 |
F = 2.11; p = 0.122 |
F = 1.31 p = 0.271 |
F = 1.52; p = 0.221 |
||
| Toothpaste use | ||||||||||
| No |
32 |
6.4 |
3 |
9.4 |
2 |
6.3 |
0.47 ± 1.74 |
0.47 ± 1.74 |
0.93 ± 3.83 |
0.93 ± 3.83 |
| Yes |
467 |
93.6 |
91 |
19.5 |
12 |
2.6 |
0.52 ± 1.39 |
0.49 ± 1.35 |
1 ± 3.02 |
0.93 ± 2.97 |
| |
|
|
Fisher’s exact p = 0.24 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.224 |
t-test = -0.19; p = 0.848 |
t-test = -0.09; p = 0.925 |
t-test = -0.12; p = 0.906 |
t-test = 0.01; p = 0.991 |
||
| Adult supervision of toothbrushing | ||||||||||
| No |
26 |
5.3 |
5 |
19.2 |
2 |
7.7 |
0.81 ± 2 |
0.81 ± 2 |
1.62 ± 4.61 |
1.62 ± 4.61 |
| Yes |
466 |
94.7 |
85 |
18.2 |
10 |
2.2 |
0.47 ± 1.3 |
0.44 ± 1.26 |
0.9 ± 2.79 |
0.83 ± 2.72 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 0.02; p = 0.899 |
Fisher’s exact p = 0.128 |
t-test = 1.24; p = 0.214 |
t-test = 1.38; p = 0.169 |
t-test = 1.22; p = 0.224 |
t-test = 1.37; p = 0.171 |
||
| Use of fluoride supplements | ||||||||||
| No |
314 |
64.3 |
58 |
18.5 |
7 |
2.2 |
0.48 ± 1.34 |
0.45 ± 1.29 |
0.92 ± 2.83 |
0.84 + 2.76 |
| Yes |
174 |
35.7 |
34 |
19.5 |
7 |
4 |
0.6 ± 1.57 |
0.59 ± 1.54 |
1.2 ± 3.56 |
1.15 ± 3.53 |
| |
|
|
χ
2
= 0.08; p = 0.772 |
χ
2
= 1.29; p = 0.256 |
t-test = -0.93; p = 0.351 |
t-test = -1.04; p = 0.297 |
t-test = -0.94; p = 0.35 |
t-test = -1.08; p = 0.281 |
||
|
Access to dental services
| ||||||||||
| Dental visit in the previous year | ||||||||||
| No |
413 |
83.1 |
62 |
15 |
6 |
1.5 |
0.35 ± 1.1 |
0.34 ± 1.1 |
0.64 ± 2.28 |
0.59 ± 2.23 |
| Yes |
84 |
16.9 |
33 |
39.3 |
8 |
9.5 |
1.37 ± 2.24 |
1.25 ± 2.17 |
2.82 ± 5.2 |
2.63 ± 5.17 |
| χ 2 = 26.6; p < 0.001 | χ 2 = 16.61; p < 0.001 | t-test = -6.27; p < 0.001 | t-test = -5.68; p < 0.001 | t-test = -6.13; p < 0.001 | t-test = -5.8; p < 0.001 | |||||
ECC = early childhood caries, S-ECC = severe early childhood caries.