Table 1.
Examples of bacteria that possess different immunostimulatory activity
| Phylum | Order(/family) | PRR ligandsa
|
Complement resistancec | Representatives | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TLR2b | TLR4 | NOD1 | NOD2 | ||||
| Proteobacteria | Enterobacteriales | + | + | + (2) | + (2) | + | Escherichia coli, Shigella flexneri |
| Pasteurellales | + | + | ++d (2) | +/− (2) | + | Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, NI1060 | |
| Pseudomonales | + | (−) | + (2) | +/− (2) | + | Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, Morexella catarrhalis | |
|
| |||||||
| Bacteroidales | + | (−) | +/− (3) | +/− (3) | + | Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacteroides flagilis, Bacteroides vulgatus, Tannerella forsythia | |
|
| |||||||
| Bacterodetes Firmicutes | Bacillales/Bacillaceae | + | − | ++ (5) | + (5) | Bacillus spp. | |
| Bacillales/Listeriaceae | + | − | +/−(1) | +/− (1) | + | Listeria monocytogenes. | |
| Bacillales/Staphylococcaceae | + | − | − | +/− (2) | + | Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis | |
| Lactobacillales | + | − | − | +/− (6) | + | Streptococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp. | |
| Clostridiales/Peptostreptococcaceae | + | − | ++ (1) | +/− (1) | Clostridium difficile | ||
| Clostridiales/Clostridiaceae | + | − | − (1) | +/− (1) | Clostridium tetani | ||
|
| |||||||
| Spirochaetes | Spirochaetales | + | − | nte | nt | Treponema denticola | |
|
| |||||||
| Fusobacteria | Fusobacteriales | + | + | +/− (1) | +/− (1) | Fusobacterium nucleatum | |
|
| |||||||
| Actinomyces | Actinomycetales | + | − | ++ (3) | +/− (1) | Propionibacterium acnes, Streptomyces spp. | |
According to [46,50]. Symbols: −, no ligand; (−), <1/100 stimulatory activity when compared with the E. coli K12 standard and for TLR4 this includes mono phospho lipid A type LPS [46,51,63]; −, no ligand activity; +/−, >5 and 2 ×109 kU/CFU for NOD1 and NOD2, respectively; +, >100, 10, and 5 kU/109 CFU for TLR4, NOD1 and NOD2, respectively; ++, >20kU/109 CFU for NOD1. The number of bacterial species whose individual PRR stimulatory activity have been determined are listed afterwards in parentheses.
Predicted from the genomic sequences of representative species.
Known to have resistant strains for complement activation and/or immunization (+) [67]. Listeria species are intracellular pathogens and therefore resistant to complement activation.
Some Actinomycetales species possess non-mesoDAP type pepidoglycan, so they lack high NOD1 stimulatory activity [62].
Not tested.