Table 1.

Demographic Data for studies included in the review

Authors	Study Sample	Age	Cancer Stage	Time Since Diagnosis or Surgery	Education	Income	Sample location	Acculturation level/language preference/place of birth	Asian ethnic subgroup difference/focus
Kagawa-Singer et al (1997)	n = 11 Chinese American, n = 11 Japanese American, n = 12 Anglo American	Chinese: M = 47 years (34–74), Japanese: M = 59.6 years (44–75), Anglo: M = 46.7 years (36–68), Japanese group was significantly older.	6 stage I, 22 stage II, 5 stage III, 2 stage IV	6 months to 3 years post-treatment	5 high school, 30 some college	Not reported	Los Angeles	Interviews were conducted in native languages but instruments were used in English. 10 (90%) Chinese were low acculturated while only 1 (9%) Japanese was low-acculturated. The Japanese were significantly more acculturated than the Chinese.	Difference between the responses of the Chinese and Japanese American were also found.
Wellisch (1999)	n = 18 Chinese-American, n = 15 Japanese-American, n = 13 Anglo- American	Chinese M = 50.4 (12.1), Japanese M = 59.9 (12.5), Anglo M = 47.1 (8.7). Japanese women were significantly older than the other groups.	35 stage I & II, 11 stage III & IV. The Chinese group and the Japanese group varied significantly by stage of disease.	M = 2.7 years since diagnosis for all groups	No significant ethnicity differences and closely parallel to the U.S. Census records on Asian American women's educational levels.	Not reported	Los Angeles	Interviews were conducted in participants' native languages. Chinese group had lower acculturation level than the Japanese group.	The difference between Chinese-Americans and Japanese-Americans in terms of social network sizes and type of support feedback needed was observed.
Chiu (2001)	n = 15 Chinese immigrants	M=47 years, range=33–67	3 stage I, 7 stage II, 2 stage III, 3 stage IV	M = 4 years (1–13.5) since diagnosis	4 less than college, 8 college graduate, 3 post-college degrees	Not reported	New York, San Francisco	All immigrants interviewed in Chinese.	Chinese focus
Gotay (2002)	n = 59 Japanese origin, n = 11 Filipino origin, n = 19 Hawaiian, n=35 Caucasian	Japanese origin M = 61 years, Filipino origin M = 46.8 years, Hawaiian M = 57.4 years, Caucasian M = 59.7 years. Filipino breast cancer patients were significantly younger than Caucasian and Japanese patients.	Not reported, various across all stages	Diagnosed between 4 and 6 months.	No significant ethnic differences	Not reported	Hawaii	Need to understand English for participation. Filipino breast cancer patients were less likely than other groups to have been born in the U.S.	Filipino had lower outcomes than other Asian subgroups in this study.
Ashing-Giwa et al., (2003)	n=10 Korean monolingual, n=11 Chinese (Cantonese) monolingual, n=13 Mixed Asian bilingual	Korean monolingual M = 56 (31– 78), Chinese (Cantonese) monolingual M = 56 (42– 81), Mixed Asian bilingual M = 53 (40–65)	1 stage 0, 12 stage I, 11 stage II, 2 stage III, 1 stage IV, 7 unknown. Half of the Chinese women did not know the stage of their cancer.	Korean monolingual M = 1 year (0–3), Chinese (Cantonese) monolingual M = 5 years (1–17), Mixed Asian bilingual M = 4 (0–21)	Not reported	Not reported	California	The Korean and Chinese groups were less acculturated and interviewed in their native languages.	Different emerging themes were discussed between Chinese and Korean groups.
Kagawa-Singer and Wellisch (2003)	n=18 Chinese, n=15 Japanese, n=13 Anglo	Chinese M = 50.4 (12.1), Japanese M = 59.9 (12.5), Anglo M = 47.1 (8.7). Japanese women were significantly older than the other groups.	35 stage I & II, 11 stage III & IV. The Chinese group and the Japanese group varied significantly by stage of disease.	M = 2.7 years since diagnosis for all groups	No significant ethnic differences and closely parallel to the U.S. Census records on Asian American women's educational levels.	Not reported	Los Angeles	Interviews were conducted in participants' native languages. Chinese group had lower acculturation level than the Japanese group.	Some differences of emerging themes between Japanese and Chinese groups were presented.
Ashing-Giwa et al., (2004)	n=34 Asians (Korean monolingual n=11, Chinese monolingual n=10, and Asian bilingual n=13) n=24 African American n=13 Caucasian n=26 Latina	Asian M = 55 years, range=31–81	1 Asian stage 0, 12 Asian stage I, 11 Asian stage II, 2 Asian stage III, 1 Asian stage IV, 7 Asian stage unknown. Half of the Chinese women did not know their cancer stage.	Asian M = 5 years	Not reported.	Estimated as lower-middle to lower income.	Los Angeles	The Korean, Chinese and Latina groups were less acculturated and interviewed in their native languages.	N/A
Wong-Kim et al., (2005)	n = 30 Chinese women (15 foreign-born and 15 U.S.-born)	M = 54 years	Included all stages.	Diagnosed within 24 months.	The foreign-born women reported a lower level of education than the U.S.-born sample.	The foreign-born women reported a lower level of income than the U.S.-born sample.	San Francisco Bay Area	Foreign-born participants resided in the U.S. for less than 15 years.	Chinese focus.
Kim et al., (2006)	n=85 Chinese, n = 39 Filipino, n = 29 Korean, n=26 Japanese, and n=27 other Asians	M = 54 years	37 stage 0, 80 stage I, 70 stage II, 17 stage III	M = 2.9 years since diagnosis. Japanese Americans had significantly longer numbers of years (M=3.8) than Chinese (M=2.7) and Korean Americans (M=2.6).	37 high school or less, 52 as much as an associate degree, 117 college or more. Korean American women had lower education level compared with other groups.	49 <=25,000, 37 25,000-45,000, 49 45,000-75,000, 61 > 75,000. Chinese Americans who reported survey in Mandarin and Korean Americans had lower income levels compared with other groups.	Southern California	Some participants chose their native languages (Mandarin or Korean) as the preferred survey language. Acculturation levels were significantly lower for Korean Americans, followed by Chinese Americans compared with other groups.	Asian subgroup differences exist.
Levine et al., (2007)	n=52 Asian/Pacific Islander, n=36 African American, n=52 Caucasian, n=21 Latina	M = 57 years for all women	For all women: 10 stage 0/DCIS, 77 stage I, 75 stage II	Asian M = 2.2 years since diagnosis, significantly longer than the Caucasian group (M = 1.7 years).	For all women: 3 less than 12 years, 10 high school graduate, 41 some college, 49 college graduate, 47 post graduate	Not reported	San Francisco Bay Area	Some interviews were conducted in Chinese. 36 participants were born in Asian/Pacific Islands.	N/A
Lim et al., (2009)	n = 206 Asian, n=183 Latina	Asian M = 54 years	Asian: 37 stage 0, 80 stage I, 70 stage II, 17 stage III	Asian: M = 2.9 years since diagnosis	Asian: 9 < high school, 28 = high school, 169 > high school. Asian Americans reported higher educational levels compared to Latinas.	Asian: 51 < 25,000, 41 25,000-45,000, 41 45,000-75,000, 63 > 75,000. Asian Americans reported higher income levels compared to Latinas.	Southern California	No significant difference in the acculturation level between Latinas (M=2.65) and Asian Americans (M=2.58). Some participants answered survey in their native languages (Spanish, Korean, and Chinese).	N/A
Lim and Yi (2009)	n = 51 Korean Americans (47 breast cancer and 4 gynecologic), n = 110 Koreans (72 breast cancer and 38 gynecologic)	Korean Americans: 1 30–39 years, 10 40–49 years, 22 50– 59 years, 18 60 or older	Korean Americans: 14 stage 0, 15 stage I, 13 stage II, 7 stage III	Korean Americans years since diagnosis: 9 less than 1, 28 2–5, 14 6 or more	Korean Americans: 8 less than high school, 20 high school or some college, 23 college graduate or higher	Korean Americans: 27 less than 25,000, 25 25,000 and more	Korean Americans recruited from Southern California.	Korean Americans: 50 birthplace in Korea and 49 primary language is Korean.	Korean focus.
Levine et al., (2009)	n=52 Asian/Pacific Islander, n=41 African American, n=53 Caucasian, n=23 Latina	M = 58 years (range from 31–83) for all women	For all women: 10 stage 0/DCIS, 81 stage I, 78 stage II	M = 2 years since diagnosis for all women. Time since diagnosis for Caucasians was significantly lower than Asian/Pacific Islander women.	For all women: 4 less than 12 years, 11 high school graduate, 44 some college, 52 college graduate, 48 post graduate.	Not reported	San Francisco Bay Area	Some interviews were conducted in Chinese. 36 participants were born in Asian/Pacific Islands.	N/A
Ashing-Giwa and Lim (Psycho-Oncology) (2010)	n =185 Asian, n=154 European, n=121 African, n=166 Latina	M = 52 years (range from 29–69) for all women	85.5% had been diagnosed with breast cancer in stages I or II.	M= 2.9 years since cancer diagnosis for all women	Not reported	Not reported	Southern California	Some participants answered survey in their native languages (Spanish, Korean, and Chinese).	N/A
Ashing-Giwa and Lim (Qua Life Res) (2010)	n =206 Asian, n=179 European, n=135 African, n=183 Latina	M = 55 years (range from 29–91) for all women	11.1% stage 0, 36.7% stage I, 38.5% stage II, 13.7% stage III. Asian Americans were more likely to have been diagnosed at earlier stage.	M= 3 years since cancer diagnosis for all women	14.4% < high school, 10.8% high school, 74.8% > high school for all women	29.5% < 25,000, 21.8% 25,000-45,000, 21.7% > 45,000-75,000, 27% > 75,000 for all women	Southern California	Some participants answered survey in their native languages (Spanish, Korean, and Chinese).	N/A
Yi et al., (2011)	n = 72 Chinese, n = 25 Vietnamese, n=1 half Chinese half Vietnamese	M = 56 years	87% stages I-IIIA	M = 28 months for all women	Chinese Americans (68%) were more likely to complete high school than Vietnamese Americans (28%).	Vietnamese Americans (86%) were more likely to have income less than 50,000 than Chinese Americans (65%).	Houston, Texas	Interviews were conducted either in Cantonese or Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese or English. 33% of the whole sample reported having the ability to understand English well and among these, 91% were Chinese Americans.	Chinese and Vietnamese focus. Vietnamese reported lower outcomes than Chinese.
Tsai et al., (2011)	n = 107 Chinese immigrant women for the quantitative survey, n = 15 women for in-depth interview	M = 52.6 years for 107 sample	18 stage 0, 41 stage I, 41 stage II, 8 stage III for 107 sample	29.5 months since diagnosis for 107 samples. 4–52 months since diagnosis for 15 sample	18 high school, 23 post high school, 44 college, 22 graduate. Higher level of acculturation was associated with a more favorable education status.	16 < 15,000, 24 15,000-45,000, 14 45,001-75,000, 12 > 75,000. Higher level of acculturation was associated with a more favorable income status.	Southern California	Interviews were conducted in Mandarin, Taiwanese or English.	Chinese
Ashing-Giwa and Lim (Oncology Nursing Forum) (2011)	n =206 Asian, n=179 European, n=135 African, n=183 Latina	M = 55 years (range from 29–91) for all women	11% stage 0, 36% stage I, 38% stage II, 13% stage III, 1% not reported	M= 3 years since cancer diagnosis for all women	14% < high school, 11% high school, 75% > high school for all women	28% < 25,000, 21% 25,000-45,000, 21% > 45,000-75,000, 26% > 75,000 for all women, 4% not reported	Southern California	Some participants answered survey in their native languages (Spanish, Korean, and Chinese).	N/A
Lu et al., (2012)	n = 19 Chinese women	M = 54 years, range from 31 – 83 years	80.9% had stage I or II diagnosis.	80.9% were within 1 to 4 years' post-diagnosis.	95.2% completed high school	47.6% had income level less than 15,000	Southern California	Expressive writing in Mandarin and/or Cantonese. The average number of years in the United States was 19 years (8–35 years).	Chinese
Quach et al., (2012)	n = 17 Chinese (Cantonese and Mandarin speakers), n = 9 Japanese, n = 8 other Asians, n = 9 African Americans, n = 9 non-Hispanic Whites, n = 8 Latinas	Chinese Cantonese speaker: M = 61.3 (36–78), Chinese Mandarin speaker: M = 54.3 (45–71), Japanese: M = 56.1 (36– 84), Other Asians: M = 57.8 (40–74)	34 stage I, 20 stage II, 6 stage III and IV	18=1 year since diagnosis, 42=2–3 years since diagnosis	15 < =12 years, 32 some college, 13 post-college	15 < 30,000, 9 30,000-59,999, 5 60,000-79,999, 18 >= 80,000, 13 Don't know or refused.	San Francisco Bay Area	31 Foreign-born. Chinese and Latina groups were conducted in their native languages.	N/A
Lee at al., (2012)	n = 4 Chinese, n = 5 Korean women, 3 oncologists	M = 54 (44– 46) years	2 stage I, 5 stage II, 1 stage III, 1 stage IV	M = 1.9 year since diagnosis	2 high school or less, 7 college graduate or above	1 < 20,000 2 20,000-49,999, 4 75,000-99,999, 2 > 100,000	Washington DC Metropolitan Area	M = 18.6 years lived in the U.S. 7 responded as speaking English well or fluently.	Chinese and Korean focus
Wang et al., (2012)	n =37 Chinese immigrant, n = 7 U.S.-born Chinese, n = 27 non-Hispanic White	M = 57.7 (38–73) years for all women	59.2% stage 0, 26.8% stage I, 2.8% stage II, 11.3% don't know	Months since primary treatment completion: 28.2% 0–12 months, 40.9% 13–24 months, 15.5% 25–36 months, 15.5% 36–45 months	25.4% Grade 1–12, 7.0% Vocational/technical school, 18.3% Some college, 31.0% College graduate, 18.3% Master's or higher degree. Chinese immigrants had a higher percentage (51.3%) of education level below college compared to U.S.-born Chinese and non-Hispanic White.	16.9% < 30,000, 14.1% 30,000-49,999, 12.6% 50,000-69,999, 18.4% 70,000-99,999, 23.9% > 100,000, 14.0% don't know. Chinese immigrants had a higher percentage (32.4%) of annual household incomes below $30,000 compared with U.S.-born Chinese and non-Hispanic White.	Northern California	M = 23.1 years in the U.S. for Chinese immigrant group. Some focus groups and interviews were conducted in Chinese.	Chinese
Paxton et al., (2012)	n = 96 Asian American, n = 118 African American, n = 165 Hispanic, n = 2634 White	Asian: Median = 52 years	Asian: 41 Stage I, 54 stage II, 1 stage IIIA	Asian: Median time = 2 years since diagnosis	Asian: 9 high school or less, 16 some college, 71 college graduate or more	Not reported	California, Arizona, Oregon, Texas	Not reported	N/A
Lim et al., (2012)	n = 206 Asian for the survey, n=11 Korean American for the focus groups	M =54	Survey: 37 Stage 0, 108 Stage I, 100 stage II, 20 stage III	Survey: M=3 years	Survey: 9 less than high school, 28 high school graduate, 169 more than high school	Survey: 51 $25,000 or lower, 41 $25,000-$45,000, 51 $45,001-$75,000, 63 $75,000 or higher	California		Korean BCS might have a different pattern of association in the doctor-patient relationship compared with the cultural health beliefs of other AA BCS.
Lim and Paek (2012)	n=86 Chinese American, n=71 Korean American	M=55.3	Chinese: 10 Stage 0, 22 Stage I, 45 stage II, 9 stage III; Korean: 1 Stage 0, 34 Stage I, 23 stage II, 12 stage III	Chinese: M=3.2 years; Korean: M=3.9 years	43 high school or less, 114 higher than high school	57<$25,000, 25 $25,000-$45,000, 26 $45,000-$75,000, 37 < $75,000	Los Angeles, California	Length of stay in the U.S.: M=23.9 years, survey was in native language.	Structural paths varied between Chinese American and Korean American BCS.
Lee et al., (2013)	n= 4 Chinese American, n=5 Korean American	M =53.7 years	8 Stage I-III	All but one were within 5 years since diagnosis	7 college graduate and above	6 above $75,000	Maryland	All immigrants	Chinese and Korean focus