Table 3.

Representative examples of the mixed behavioral patterns revealed by studies examining how stimulus content or features of the arousal response influence the effect of arousal on memory.

Manipulation Category	Specific Manipulation	Study	Key Finding for Effect of Arousal
Content of Memoranda	Emotional vs. neutral	Abercrombie et al., 2003	Negative and Neutral
		Buchanan & Lovallo, 2001	Positive and Negative; No effect on Neutral
		Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2003	Negative; No effect on Neutral
		Payne et al., 2007	Negative; Neutral
		Rimmele et al., 2003	Negative; Neutral
		Schwabe & Wolf, 2010	Positive, Negative, Neutral
	Positive vs. negative valence	Domes et al., 2004	Positive; No effect on Negative
		Schwabe et al., 2008	Negative; No effect on Positive
	Memoranda related, or unrelated, to stressor	Smeets et al., 2007	Memory for stressor-related words > Non-stressor-related words
		Smeets et al., 2009	Memory for stressor-related words > Non-stressor-related words
	Memoranda central or peripheral to the elicitor of arousal	Christianson, 1984	Central; No effect on Peripheral
		Easterbrook, 1959	Cue-utilization: Central; Peripheral
		Heuer & Reisberg, 1990	Central and Peripheral
		Kebeck & Lohaus, 1986	Central; Peripheral
		Loftus, Loftus, & Messo, 1987	Weapon focus effect: Central; Peripheral
	Salience of neutral stimuli	Sutherland & Mather, 2012	High-salience stimuli; No effect on Low-salience stimuli
Features of Arousal	Level of Arousal	Gold & Van Buskirk, 1975	Inverted-U; moderate (not lower or higher) doses of epinephrine enhance spatial memory
		Lupien et al., 1997	High stress memory for unrelated pairs of words
		Yerkes & Dodson, 1908	Inverted-U between shock strength and learning success on complex tasks
	Relevance of Arousal to Task: Reason for physiological arousal	Libkuman et al., 1999	Task-relevant arousal memory for scene details Task-Irrelevant = No effect