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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Mar 19.
Published in final edited form as: Ann Intern Med. 2008 Jun 17;148(12):904–914. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-148-12-200806170-00003

Table 2.

Relative risks of death from all causes and specific causes by levels of caffeinated coffee consumption in men and women.

Coffee consumption, cups
<1/mo 1/mo-4/wk 5-7/wk 2-3/d 4-5/d ≥6/d P value for trend
Men
Death from all causes
 Person-yr 170,743 145,607 187,985 148,389 37,639 10,601
 No. of deaths 1553 1570 2117 1289 286 73
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.99 (0.93-1.07) 0.97 (0.91-1.03) 0.98 (0.91-1.06) 1.11 (0.97-1.25) 1.28 (1.01-1.62) 0.14
 Age and smoking 1.0 1.02 (0.95-1.10) 1.00 (0.94-1.07) 0.95 (0.89-1.03) 0.97 (0.85-1.10) 0.95 (0.75-1.21) 0.12
 Multivariable * 1.0 1.07 (0.99-1.16) 1.02 (0.95-1.11) 0.97 (0.89-1.05) 0.93 (0.81-1.07) 0.80 (0.62-1.04) 0.008
Death from CVD
 No. of deaths 459 488 664 357 66 15
 Age-adjusted 1.0 1.03 (0.91-1.17) 1.01 (0.90-1.14) 0.93 (0.81-1.06) 0.89 (0.69-1.15) 0.93 (0.56-1.56) 0.10
 Age and smoking 1.0 1.06 (0.93-1.20) 1.04 (0.92-1.17) 0.90 (0.78-1.03) 0.79 (0.61-1.03) 0.72 (0.43-1.20) 0.003
 Multivariable 1.0 1.05 (0.90-1.21) 1.09 (0.95-1.25) 0.95 (0.81-1.11) 0.85 (0.65-1.13) 0.56 (0.31-1.03) 0.03
Death from Cancer
 No. of deaths 537 578 729 491 122 34
 Age-adjusted 1.0 1.06 (0.95-1.20) 0.98 (0.88-1.09) 1.07 (0.95-1.21) 1.33 (1.10-1.63) 1.65 (1.17-2.34) 0.002
 Age and smoking 1.0 1.08 (0.96-1.22) 0.99 (0.89-1.11) 1.03 (0.91-1.16) 1.17 (0.96-1.42) 1.27 (0.89-1.80) 0.27
 Multivariable 1.0 1.14 (1.00-1.30) 1.01 (0.89-1.15) 1.01 (0.88-1.16) 1.15 (0.93-1.43) 1.14 (0.79-1.65) 0.82
Other causes
 No. of deaths 557 504 724 441 98 24
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.89 (0.79-1.01) 0.92 (0.83-1.03) 0.94 (0.83-1.06) 1.05 (0.85-1.31) 1.16 (0.77-1.75) 0.41
 Age and smoking 1.0 0.93 (0.82-1.05) 0.98 (0.88-1.09) 0.92 (0.81-1.05) 0.92 (0.74-1.14) 0.84 (0.55-1.26) 0.30
 Multivariable 1.0 1.01 (0.88-1.17) 0.98 (0.85-1.12) 0.93 (0.80-1.08) 0.76 (0.59-0.98) 0.65 (0.11-1.04) 0.006
Women
Death from all causes
 Person-yr 319,326 247,470 609,374 563,666 172,583 60,180
 No. of deaths 1665 1610 3946 2876 738 260
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.90 (0.84-0.96) 0.86 (0.81-0.91) 0.90 (0.84-0.95) 1.01 (0.93-1.10) 1.39 (1.22-1.59) 0.001
 Age and smoking 1.0 0.89 (0.83-0.95) 0.82 (0.77-0.87) 0.77 (0.73-0.82) 0.76 (0.70-0.83) 0.92 (0.80-1.05) <0.001
 Multivariable 1.0 0.98 (0.91-1.05) 0.93 (0.87-0.98) 0.82 (0.77-0.87) 0.74 (0.68-0.81) 0.83 (0.73-0.95) <0.001
Death from CVD
 No. of deaths 362 362 868 563 151 62
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.91 (0.79-1.06) 0.86 (0.76-0.97) 0.80 (0.70-0.91) 0.95 (0.79-1.15) 1.53 (1.16-2.00) 0.78
 Age and smoking 1.0 0.91 (0.79-1.05) 0.82 (0.72-0.92) 0.67 (0.58-0.76) 0.67 (0.55-0.81) 0.91 (0.69-1.19) <0.001
 Multivariable 1.0 1.06 (0.91-1.22) 0.99 (0.87-1.12) 0.75 (0.66-0.86) 0.66 (0.54-0.80) 0.81 (0.61-1.06) <0.001
Death from Cancer
 No. of deaths 679 691 1722 1409 378 132
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.98 (0.88-1.09) 0.96 (0.88-1.05) 1.08 (0.98-1.18) 1.22 (1.08-1.39) 1.60 (1.32-1.93) <0.001
 Age and smoking 1.0 0.96 (0.87-1.07) 0.91 (0.83-0.99) 0.94 (0.86-1.04) 0.97 (0.85-1.10) 1.15 (0.95-1.39) 0.45
 Multivariable 1.0 1.01 (0.91-1.12) 0.95 (0.87-1.04) 0.94 (0.86-1.04) 0.91 (0.80-1.03) 1.05 (0.87-1.28) 0.26
Other causes
 No. of deaths 624 557 1356 904 209 66
 Age-adjusted 1.0 0.80 (0.71-0.89) 0.75 (0.69-0.83) 0.75 (0.68-0.84) 0.81 (0.69-0.95) 1.06 (0.82-1.37) 0.12
 Age and smoking 1.0 0.79 (0.70-0.88) 0.72 (0.65-0.79) 0.65 (0.59-0.72) 0.60 (0.51-0.70) 0.66 (0.51-0.85) <0.001
 Multivariable 1.0 0.89 (0.78-1.00) 0.86 (0.77-0.95) 0.70 (0.63-0.78) 0.59 (0.50-0.70) 0.60 (0.46-0.77) <0.001

Values are relative risks and 95% confidence intervals. CVD: cardiovascular disease.

*

Adjusted for: age (5-year categories), smoking status (never, past, and current 1-14, 15-24, and ≥25 cigarettes/day), body mass index (<23.0, 23.0-24.9, 25.0-27.9, 28.0-29.9, ≥30.0 kg/m2), physical activity (quintiles of metabolic equivalent tasks hours/week for men, and <1.0, 1.0-1.9, 2.0-3.9, 4.0-6.9, ≥7.0 hours/week for women), alcohol intake (never, 0.1-4.9, 5.0-9.9, 10.0-14.9, 15.0-29.9, ≥30.0 g/d), parental history with respect to myocardial infarction, menopausal status and use of hormone therapy for women (premenopausal women, post without hormone therapy, post with past hormone therapy, post with current hormone therapy), multivitamin use, vitamin E supplement use, total caloric intake, and quintiles of polyunsaturated, saturated, fish n-3, and trans fat intake, glycemic load, and folate intake.