. 2013 Apr 2;2(2):651–692. doi: 10.3390/biology2020651

Table 3.

Summary of the impacts of ocean acidification on embryonic and larval development of molluscs.

Species	Experiment Duration	CO₂/pH range	Measured	Impact	CO₂/pH level that first caused an impact	Author
BIVALVES
Argopecten irradians (scallop)	19 d	355, 681, 1609 ppm 8.08, 7.83, 7.48	Survival	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)	[103]
			Development time	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
			Size	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
	52 d	244 ^, 387, 739, 1,529 ppm 8.17, 8.04*, 7.80, 7.53	Survival	↓	−0.24	[104]
			Shell thickness	↓	−0.24
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.24
			Lipid index	↓	−0.24
	18 d	240 ^, 387*, 773 ppm 8.21, 8.08, 7.81	Survival	↓	−0.27	[108]
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.27
			Metamorphosis	↓	−0.27
			Lipid index	↓	−0.27
	20 d	240 ^, 390*, 850 ppm	Survival	↓	−0.1	[109]
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.1
			Metamorphosis	↓	−0.1
			Lipid index	↓	−0.1
Crassostrea angulata (oyster)	5 d	469, 964, 1447, 2390 µatm 8.08, 7.81, 7.64, 7.43 (+Salinity 24, 34 ppt)	Shell growth	↓	−0.65	[110]
Crassostrea ariakensis (oyster)	30 d	291 ^, 386*, 581, 823 µatm	Shell growth	=		[100]
Crassostrea ariakensis (oyster)	30 d	8.17 ^, 8.08*, 7.92, 7.79	Shell calcification	=		[100]
Crassostrea gigas (oyster)	48 h	348, 2268 µatm 8.21, 7.42	Survival	↓	−0.79 (2,268 µatm)	[76]
			Size	↓	−0.79 (2,268 µatm)
			Development rate	↓	−0.79 (2,268 µatm)
			Shell normality	↓	−0.79 (2,268 µatm)
	48 h–4 d	375, 600, 750, 1000 µatm 8.19, 8.01, 7.93, 7.82 (+Temp. 18, 22, 26, 30 °C)	Survival	↓	−0.18 (600 µatm)	[78]
			Size	↓	−0.18 (600 µatm)
			Shell normality	↓	−0.18 (600 µatm)
			% Umbonate larvae	↓	−0.18 (600 µatm)
			% Eyed larvae	↓	−0.18 (600 µatm)
	24–48 h	n/a 8.2–7.6 (in situ)	Early size (24 h)	=	−0.4	[26]
			Mid size (48 h)	↓
			Shell normality	=
	6 d	Control, 2275 µatm 8.0, 7.5	Protein expression	↓	−0.5 (2,275 µatm)	[124]
	3 d	449, 1020, 2171 µatm 8.03, 7.72, 7.41	Hatching	=		[116]
			Size	=
			Calcification	=
	1–3d	Day 1 466, 812, 1150 µatm 7.97, 7.75, 7.61	Survival	=		[111]
			Size	=
			Development rate	=
			Calcification	↑	−0.23 (781 µatm)
		Day 3 428, 781, 1031 µatm 8.00, 7.77, 7.66	Survival	↓	−0.23 (781 µatm)
			Size	↓	−0.34 (1,031 µatm)
			Development rate	=
			Calcification	↓	−0.34 (1,031 µatm)
Crassostrea virginica (oyster)	30 d	291 ^, 386*, 581, 823 µatm	Size	↓	−0.16 (581 µatm)	[100]
	30 d	8.17 ^, 8.08*, 7.92, 7.79	Calcification	↓	−0.16 (581 µatm)	[100]
	20 d	355, 681, 1609 ppm 8.08, 7.83, 7.48	Survival	↓	−0.6 (1,609 ppm)	[103]
			Size	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
			Development rate	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
	20 d	240 ^, 390*, 850 ppm	Survival	↓	−0.2 (850 ppm)	[109]
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.2 (850 ppm)
			Metamorphosis	↓	−0.2 (850 ppm)
			Lipid index	↓	−0.2 (850 ppm)
Macoma balthica (clam)	19 d	n/a 8.1, 7.8, 7.5	Hatching	↓	−0.3	[96]
			Survival	↓	−0.6
			Size	↓	−0.3
			Metamorphosis	=
Mytilus californianus (mussel)	5–8 d	380, 540, 970 ppm 8.07, 7.95, 7.75	Shell area	↓	−0.12 (540 ppm)	[107]
			Shell thickness	↓	−0.12 (540 ppm)
			Shell strength	↓	−0.12 (540 ppm)
			Tissue mass	↓	−0.12 (540 ppm)
Mytilus edulis (mussel)	13 d	460, 1100, 1900 µatm	Survival	=		[102]
Mytilus edulis (mussel)	13 d	8.1, 7.8, 7.6	Hatching	↓	−0.5 (1,900 µatm)	[102]
			Size	↓	−0.3 (1,100 µatm)
	64 d	368, 1291 µatm 8.13, 7.63	Size	↓	−0.5 (1,291 µatm)	[94]
			Development rate	=
			Shell normality	=
			Feeding rate	=
Mytilus galloprovincialis (mussel)	6 d	380, 2000 ppm 8.13, 7.42	Size	↓	−0.71 (2,000 ppm)	[36]
			Development rate	↓	−0.71 (2,000 ppm)
			Shell normality	↓	−0.71 (2,000 ppm)
Mytilus trossolus (mussel)	60 h	400, 1000 ppm 8.3, 7.9	Shell length	↓	−0.4 (1,000 ppm)	[112]
Mercenaria mercenaria (clam)	18 d	355, 681, 1609 ppm 8.08, 7.83, 7.48	Survival	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)	[103]
			Size	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
			Development rate	↓	−0.25 (681 ppm)
	36 d	244 ^, 387, 739, 1529 ppm 8.17, 8.04*, 7.80, 7.53	Survival	↓	−0.24	[104]
			Shell thickness	↓	−0.24
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.24
			Lipid index	↓	−0.24
	18 d	240 ^, 387*, 773 ppm 8.21, 8.08, 7.81	Survival	↓	−0.27	[108]
			Shell diameter	↓	−0.27
			Metamorphosis	↓	−0.27
			Lipid index	↓	−0.27
Saccostrea glomerata (oyster)	48 h	375, 600, 750, 1000 ppm	Survival	↓	−0.17	[37]
		8.20, 8.03, 7.95, 7.84	Size	↓	−0.17
		Temp.: 18, 22, 26, 30 °C	Shell normality	↓	−0.17
	48 h–4 d	375, 600, 750, 1000 µatm 8.19, 8.01, 7.93, 7.82 Temp.: 18, 22, 26, 30 °C	Survival	↓	−0.18	[78]
			Size	↓	−0.18
			Shell normality	↓	−0.18
			% Umbonate larvae	↓	−0.18
			% Eyed larvae	↓	−0.18
	8 d	220, 509, 756 µatm 8.11, 7.81, 7.64	Survival	↓	−0.3	[101]
			Size	↓	−0.3
			Shell normality	↓	−0.3
Range of bivalves		336–5148 µatm	Settlement	↓	−0.4	[126]
Range of bivalves		8.15–7.08	Settlement	↓	−0.4	[126]
GASTROPODS
Cavolina inflexia (pteropod)	13 d	380, 857, 1713 µatm	Size	↓	−0.28 (857 µatm)	[105]
Cavolina inflexia (pteropod)	13 d	8.1, 7.82, 7.58	Shell normality	↓	−0.28 (857 µatm)	[105]
Haliotis cocoradiata (abalone)	21 h	306, 1,077, 1770 ppm	Calcification	↓	−0.4 (1,077 ppm)	[12]
Haliotis cocoradiata (abalone)	21 h	8.2, 7.8, 7.6	Shell normality	↓	−0.4 (1,077 ppm)	[12]
Haliotis discus hannai (abalone)	90 h	450, 500, 1100, 1650, 2150 µatm 8.02, 7.94, 7.68, 7.54, 7.43	Hatching rate	↓	−0.34 (1,100 ppm)	[97]
			Survival	=
			Shell normality	↓	−0.34 (1,100 ppm)
Haliotis rufescens (abalone)	6 d	380, 570, 990 ppm	Thermal tolerance	↓	−0.18 (990 ppm)	[123]
Haliotis rufescens (abalone)	6 d	8.05, 7.97, 7.87	Ap24 expression	=	−0.18 (990 ppm)	[123]
Littoria obtusata (periwinkle)	24 d	Control, 1093 ppm 8.1, 7.6	Viability	↓	−0.5 (1,093 ppm)	[106]
			Development rate	↓	−0.5 (1,093 ppm)
			Heart rate	↓	−0.5 (1,093 ppm)
			Altered behaviour		−0.5 (1,093 ppm)
			Altered shell		−0.5 (1,093 ppm)

Bivalves: 21 studies, 12 species; Gastropods: 5 studies, 5 species; Cephalopods: 0 studies. h = hours, d = days, mo = months; control CO₂/pH listed in italics; ^* denotes preindustrial CO₂ level.