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Sticklebacks that were alone had higher circulating concentrations of cortisol than sticklebacks that were in a group, and females had higher cortisol than males. Data within each level of sex * social environment represent all three time periods combined. n = 43–51 per bar. Data represent least squares (LS) means ± 1 standard error of raw (not transformed) data. LS-means with the same letter are not significantly different.
