TABLE 1.
Demographics and covariates by perceived racial discrimination, CARDIA Study, United States (Year 15 Examination: 2000–2001)
| Total sample (n = 1,362) | Perceived racial discrimination score |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None (n = 330) |
Low (range, 1–3; n = 340) |
Moderate (range, 3.5–7.5; n=379) |
High (range, ≥8; n = 313) |
|||||
| Mean or % | 95% CI | Mean or % | 95% CI | Mean or % | 95% CI | Mean or % | 95% CI | |
| Age at examination (y) | 39.7 | 39.2–40.1 | 39.3 | 38.8–39.7 | 39.8 | 39.4–40.2 | 40.0 | 39.6–40.4 |
| % Female | 62.7 | 56.1–69.3 | 60.7 | 53.4–68.0 | 52.8 | 45.7–59.9 | 57.1 | 50.6–63.6 |
| Participant education | ||||||||
| ≤High school diploma/GED | 41.2 | 32.9–49.5 | 22.9 | 12.7–33.1 | 30.5 | 21.9–39.2 | 24.5 | 15.9–33.2 |
| Some college or college degree | 54.8 | 47.6–62.1 | 66.5 | 59.8–73.3 | 62.7 | 56.4–69.1 | 61.2 | 55.0–67.4 |
| >College degree | 3.9 | 0.0–14.5 | 10.6 | 0.0–21.6 | 6.7 | 0.0–16.7 | 14.2 | 5.0–23.4 |
| Participant income (income per $1,000) | 43.5 † | 40.3–46.7 | 54.9 | 51.4–58.3 | 49.5 | 46.5–52.5 | 53.4 | 50.4–56.5 |
| Father’s occupation* | ||||||||
| Managerial, professional | 9.2 | 0.0–21.2 | 16.2 | 4.3–28.0 | 16.7 | 5.8–27.6 | 21.2 | 11.1–31.4 |
| Manual laborers, service jobs | 90.8 | 87.0–94.7 | 83.8 | 78.6–89.0 | 83.3 | 78.5–88.2 | 78.8 | 73.5–84.1 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 116.8 | 115.2–118.5 | 116.1 | 114.3–118.0 | 119.2 | 117.4–121.1 | 115.4 | 114.0–116.9 |
| Hypertensive medications (yes) | 14.2 | 4.3–24.2 | 7.0 | 0.0–18.2 | 13.3 | 3.7–23.0 | 12.7 | 3.4–22.0 |
| Diabetes† (yes) | 9.1 | 0.0–19.4 | 7.4 | 0.0–18.6 | 6.5 | 0.0–16.6 | 8.1 | 0.0–17.7 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 30.4 | 29.6–31.1 | 30.0 | 29.2–30.7 | 30.4 | 29.7–31.0 | 30.0 | 29.4–30.7 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 181.1 | 177.3–185.0 | 183.6 | 179.3–187.9 | 185.1 | 181.2–189.0 | 182.6 | 179.2–186.0 |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 51.0 | 49.5–52.6 | 52.1 | 50.4–53.7 | 50.9 | 49.4–52.3 | 50.8 | 49.4–52.2 |
| Cholesterol-lowering medications (yes) | 1.5 | 0.0–12.2 | 1.1 | 0.0–12.6 | 1.9 | 0.0–12.2 | 2.8 | 0.0–12.7 |
| Current smokers (yes) | 34.4 | 25.3–43.6 | 22.6 | 11.4–33.7 | 29.6 | 20.4–38.8 | 28.8 | 19.9–37.8 |
| Anger Expression Score‡ | 5.3 | 4.9–5.6 | 5.0 | 4.7–5.3 | 5.6 | 5.3–6.0 | 6.4 | 6.0–6.8 |
| Reactive Responding Score§ | 13.9 | 13.6–14.3 | 13.6 | 13.2–14.1 | 14.1 | 13.7–14.5 | 14.6 | 14.2–15.0 |
| Depressive symptomatology∥ | 9.8 | 9.0–10.6 | 8.7 | 7.8–9.5 | 10.0 | 9.2–10.8 | 12.0 | 11.1–13.0 |
| CAC present¶ | 10.0 | 0.0–20.2 | 7.0 | 0.0–18.2 | 8.3 | 0.0–18.2 | 5.2 | 0.0–14.9 |
BMI = body mass index; CAC = coronary artery calcification; CI = confidence interval; GED = Graduate Equivalency Diploma; HDL = high-density lipoprotein.
Bolded values represent comparisons where the 95% confidence intervals do not overlap between extreme comparison groups (none versus high perceived racial discrimination score).
Father’s occupation was based on Census Occupation Codes.
Diabetes diagnosis obtained by self-report, fasting plasma glucose levels ≥126 mg/dL, and/or use of glucose-lowering medications.
The anger expression score is based on responses to 4-level Likert scale (range, 0–3) questions on how often they generally react or behave when feeling angry or furious.
This score was based on responses to the MacArthur Networks Reactive Responding questionnaire.
The Depressive Symptomatology Score used the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D).
CAC was present if the sum of the Agatston scores was greater than 0.