TABLE 2.
Logistic regression analyses for the association between perceived racial discrimination and presence of coronary artery calcification (CAC), CARDIA Study, United States (2000–2001)
| Model adjustment |
|||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age and gender |
Age, gender, and socioeconomic position* |
Age, gender, and psychosocial† |
Age, gender, and CHD risk factors‡ |
All§ |
|||||||||||
| OR∥ | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% | CI | OR | 95% | CI | OR | 95% | CI | |||
| Perceived racial discrimination (score, 0–35) |
0.94 | 0.90 | 0.98 | 0.94 | 0.90 | 0.99 | 0.93 | 0.87 | 0.99 | 0.94 | 0.89 | 0.98 | 0.93 | 0.87 | 0.99 |
| Age at examination (y) | 1.25 | 1.17 | 1.34 | 1.25 | 1.15 | 1.35 | 1.21 | 1.11 | 1.32 | 1.20 | 1.12 | 1.29 | 1.20 | 1.10 | 1.31 |
| Gender (female vs. male) | 0.34 | 0.22 | 0.52 | 0.27 | 0.16 | 0.46 | 0.31 | 0.17 | 0.57 | 0.37 | 0.22 | 0.62 | 0.32 | 0.17 | 0.61 |
| Participant education | |||||||||||||||
| ≤High school diploma/GED | 1.0 | — | — | 1.0 | — | — | |||||||||
| Some college or college degree | 0.91 | 0.53 | 1.57 | 1.12 | 0.59 | 2.11 | |||||||||
| >College degree | 0.30 | 0.06 | 1.40 | 0.70 | 0.14 | 3.50 | |||||||||
| Participant income (income per $1,000) |
0.98 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 1.00 | |||||||||
| Father’s occupation¶ | |||||||||||||||
| Managerial, professional | 1.14 | 0.53 | 2.46 | 0.68 | 0.25 | 1.88 | |||||||||
| Manual laborers, service jobs | 1.0 | — | — | 1.0 | — | — | |||||||||
| Anger Expression Score# | 1.09 | 1.00 | 1.19 | 1.04 | 0.96 | 1.14 | |||||||||
| Reactive Responding Score** | 1.04 | 0.96 | 1.13 | 0.98 | 0.90 | 1.07 | |||||||||
| Depressive symptomatology†† | 0.99 | 0.95 | 1.03 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 1.02 | |||||||||
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.00 | 1.04 | |||||||||
| Hypertensive medications (yes vs no) | 3.04 | 1.60 | 5.77 | 2.59 | 1.19 | 5.65 | |||||||||
| Diabetes‡‡ (yes vs. no) | 0.98 | 0.42 | 2.25 | 0.95 | 0.33 | 2.79 | |||||||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 0.97 | 0.93 | 1.02 | 0.98 | 0.93 | 1.03 | |||||||||
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 1.01 | 1.00 | 1.01 | 1.00 | 0.99 | 1.01 | |||||||||
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 0.99 | 0.97 | 1.00 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 1.00 | |||||||||
| Cholesterol-lowering medications (yes vs. no) |
1.81 | 0.45 | 7.24 | 0.87 | 0.11 | 6.99 | |||||||||
| Current smokers (yes vs. no) | 3.72 | 2.27 | 6.10 | 4.07 | 2.19 | 7.54 | |||||||||
BMI = body mass index; CI = confidence interval; GED = Graduate Equivalency Diploma; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; OR = odds ratio.
Socioeconomic position includes age, gender, father’s occupation, and participant’s education, and household income.
Psychosocial variables include depressive symptomatology, anger expression, and reactive responding.
Coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors includes current smoking status, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, hypertensive medications, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, lipidlowering medication, and BMI.
Includes all variables from previous models.
Each odds ratio (OR) represents the increased odds for the presence of CAC for a 1-unit increase in the perceived racial discrimination score.
Father’s occupation was based on Census Occupation Codes.
The anger expression score is based on responses to a 4-level Likert scale (range, 0–3) questions on how often they generally react or behave when feeling angry or furious.
This score was based on responses to the MacArthur Networks Reactive Responding questionnaire.
The Depressive Symptomatology Score used the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D).
Diabetes diagnosis obtained by self-report, fasting plasma glucose levels ≥126 mg/dL, and/or use of glucose-lowering medications.