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. 2014 Mar 13;6(3):1080–1102. doi: 10.3390/nu6031080

Table 1.

Summary of epidemiological studies investigating the association between dietary intake of heme iron and/or red meat with various diseases.

Disease Diet Intake HR/OR/RR (95% CI) Highest vs. Lowest Reported Association Number of Pzarticipants Age (Years) Years of Follow Up Diet Assessment Method Reference
Colorectal cancer Red Meat HR = 1.24 (1.12–1.36) + 567,169 50–71 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Colon cancer High heme and low chlorophyll RR = 1.58 (0.99–2.54) + 58,279 Men 55–69 9.3 150-item semi quantitative FFQ [50]
Colorectal cancer with KRAS mutation Heme Iron HR = 1.71 (1.15–2.57) + 4026 55–69 7.3 150-item FFQ [54]
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma Red Meat HR = 1.79 (1.07–3.01) + 494,979 50–71 10 124-item FFQ [42]
Heme Iron HR = 1.47 (0.99–2.20)
Esophageal cancer Red Meat HR = 1.51 (1.09–2.08) + 567,169 50–71 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Heme Iron OR = 3.04 (1.20–7.72) + 124 esophageal, 154 stomach cancer and 449 controls ≥21 100-item Short health habit and history questionnaire [57]
Gastric cancer Heme Iron HR = 1.13 (1.01–1.26) + 481,419 35–70 8.7 Validated country specific questionnaires [56]
Stomach cancer Heme Iron OR = 1.99 (1.00–3.95) + 124 esophageal, 154 stomach cancer and 449 controls ≥21 100-item Short health habbit and history questionnaire [57]
Liver cancer Red Meat HR = 1.61 (1.12–2.31) + 567,169 50–71 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Pancreatic cancer Red Meat HRMen = 1.43 (1.11–1.83) + 567,169 50–71 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Endometrial cancer Red Meat HR = 0.75 (0.62–0.91) inverse association 567,169 50–71 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Heme Iron RR = 1.24 (1.01–1.53) moderate 60,895 Women born between 1914 and 1948 21 67-item FFQ in 1987 and 96-item FFQ in 1997 [62]
Lung cancer Red Meat HRMen = 1.11 (0.79–1.56) No Association 99,579 55–74 8 124-item FFQ [46]
HRWomen = 1.30 (0.87–1.95)
Red Meat HR = 1.2 (1.10–1.31) + 567,169 8.2 124-item FFQ [40]
Red Meat HRMen = 1.22 (1.09–1.38) + 278,380 men and 189,596 women 50–71 8 124-item FFQ [63]
HRWomen = 1.13 (0.97–1.32)
Heme Iron HRMen = 1.25 (1.07–1.45)
HRWomen = 1.18 (0.99–1.42)
Type 2 Diabetes Red Meat RR = 1.44 (0.92–2.24) moderate, non-significant 91,246 U.S women 26–46 8 133-item semiquantitative FFQ [64]
Red Meat RR = 1.63 (1.26–2.10) + 38,394 Men 40–75 12 131-item semiquantitative FFQ [65]
Heme Iron RR = 1.28 (1.04–1.58) + 35,698 postmenopausal women 55–69 11 127-item FFQ [66]
Heme Iron RR = 1.28 (1.14–1.45) + 85,031 women 34–59 20 131-item expanded FFQ [67]
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Heme Iron RR = 1.51 (0.99–2.36) + 3158 pregnant women ≥18 121-item FFQ [68]
Myocardial Infarction Heme Iron RR = 1.86 (1.14–3.09) + 4802 ≥55 3–7 170-item semiquantitative FFQ [69]

HR, hazard ratio; OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; +, positive association; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire.