Table 1.
Summary of epidemiological studies investigating the association between dietary intake of heme iron and/or red meat with various diseases.
Disease | Diet Intake | HR/OR/RR (95% CI) Highest vs. Lowest | Reported Association | Number of Pzarticipants | Age (Years) | Years of Follow Up | Diet Assessment Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Colorectal cancer | Red Meat | HR = 1.24 (1.12–1.36) | + | 567,169 | 50–71 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] |
Colon cancer | High heme and low chlorophyll | RR = 1.58 (0.99–2.54) | + | 58,279 Men | 55–69 | 9.3 | 150-item semi quantitative FFQ | [50] |
Colorectal cancer with KRAS mutation | Heme Iron | HR = 1.71 (1.15–2.57) | + | 4026 | 55–69 | 7.3 | 150-item FFQ | [54] |
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma | Red Meat | HR = 1.79 (1.07–3.01) | + | 494,979 | 50–71 | 10 | 124-item FFQ | [42] |
Heme Iron | HR = 1.47 (0.99–2.20) | |||||||
Esophageal cancer | Red Meat | HR = 1.51 (1.09–2.08) | + | 567,169 | 50–71 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] |
Heme Iron | OR = 3.04 (1.20–7.72) | + | 124 esophageal, 154 stomach cancer and 449 controls | ≥21 | 100-item Short health habit and history questionnaire | [57] | ||
Gastric cancer | Heme Iron | HR = 1.13 (1.01–1.26) | + | 481,419 | 35–70 | 8.7 | Validated country specific questionnaires | [56] |
Stomach cancer | Heme Iron | OR = 1.99 (1.00–3.95) | + | 124 esophageal, 154 stomach cancer and 449 controls | ≥21 | 100-item Short health habbit and history questionnaire | [57] | |
Liver cancer | Red Meat | HR = 1.61 (1.12–2.31) | + | 567,169 | 50–71 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] |
Pancreatic cancer | Red Meat | HRMen = 1.43 (1.11–1.83) | + | 567,169 | 50–71 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] |
Endometrial cancer | Red Meat | HR = 0.75 (0.62–0.91) | inverse association | 567,169 | 50–71 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] |
Heme Iron | RR = 1.24 (1.01–1.53) | moderate | 60,895 | Women born between 1914 and 1948 | 21 | 67-item FFQ in 1987 and 96-item FFQ in 1997 | [62] | |
Lung cancer | Red Meat | HRMen = 1.11 (0.79–1.56) | No Association | 99,579 | 55–74 | 8 | 124-item FFQ | [46] |
HRWomen = 1.30 (0.87–1.95) | ||||||||
Red Meat | HR = 1.2 (1.10–1.31) | + | 567,169 | 8.2 | 124-item FFQ | [40] | ||
Red Meat | HRMen = 1.22 (1.09–1.38) | + | 278,380 men and 189,596 women | 50–71 | 8 | 124-item FFQ | [63] | |
HRWomen = 1.13 (0.97–1.32) | ||||||||
Heme Iron | HRMen = 1.25 (1.07–1.45) | |||||||
HRWomen = 1.18 (0.99–1.42) | ||||||||
Type 2 Diabetes | Red Meat | RR = 1.44 (0.92–2.24) | moderate, non-significant | 91,246 U.S women | 26–46 | 8 | 133-item semiquantitative FFQ | [64] |
Red Meat | RR = 1.63 (1.26–2.10) | + | 38,394 Men | 40–75 | 12 | 131-item semiquantitative FFQ | [65] | |
Heme Iron | RR = 1.28 (1.04–1.58) | + | 35,698 postmenopausal women | 55–69 | 11 | 127-item FFQ | [66] | |
Heme Iron | RR = 1.28 (1.14–1.45) | + | 85,031 women | 34–59 | 20 | 131-item expanded FFQ | [67] | |
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus | Heme Iron | RR = 1.51 (0.99–2.36) | + | 3158 pregnant women | ≥18 | 121-item FFQ | [68] | |
Myocardial Infarction | Heme Iron | RR = 1.86 (1.14–3.09) | + | 4802 | ≥55 | 3–7 | 170-item semiquantitative FFQ | [69] |
HR, hazard ratio; OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk; +, positive association; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire.