Table 2.

Effect of probiotics and prebiotics on uremic toxins, inflammation, and atherosclerosis

Reference	Patient Type/Model (number)	Intervention	Comments
Uremic toxins
Simenhoff et al.10	HD patients (8)	L. acidophilus	↓ Serum dimethylamine ↓ Nitrosodimethylamine
Prakash et al.142	Uremic rats	Genetically engineered E. coli	↓ Plasma urea
Ranganathan et al.173	Nephrectomized rats	Various combinations of probiotics	↑ Lifespan
			↓ BUN
Ranganathan et al.174	Patients with CKD (13)	S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum	↓ BUN ↓ Uric acid concentration
Ranganathan et al.175	Patients with CKD (246)	S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum	↓ BUN
Meijers et al.128	HD patients (22)	Oligofructose-enriched inulin	↓ Serum p-cresyl sulfate and generation rate
de Preter et al.176	Healthy persons (50)	Oligofructose-enriched inulin	↓ Urinary excretion of p-cresol
Nakabayashi et al.177	HD patients (7)	Galacto-oligosaccharides, L. casei, and B. breve	↓ Serum p-cresyl sulfate
Swanson et al.178	Healthy persons (68)	Fructooligosaccharides and/or L. acidophilus	↓ Fecal protein catabolites (beneficial) with fructooligosaccharides ↑ Fecal protein catabolites (harmful) with L. acidophilus
Atherosclerosis
Chen et al.141	ApoE−/− mice	L. acidophilus	↓ Atherosclerotic burden
Uchida et al.179	Rabbits on a high cholesterol diet	Exopolysaccharide	↓ Atherosclerotic lesions
Oxman et al.180	Sprague-Dawley rats	L. bulgaricus-51	↓ Reperfusion tachyarrhythmia ↑ Functional recovery of the ischemic rat hearts ↓ Norepinephrine release
Naruszewicz et al.181	Healthy persons (36)	L. plantarum 299v	↓ Systolic BP and fibrinogen ↓ F2-Isoprostanes and IL-6 ↓ Monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells
Inflammation
Neyrinck et al.182	Mice	High-molecular-weight arabinoxylane	↑ Bifidobacteria
			↓ Inflammation
Cani et al.124	Mice	Oligofructose	↓ Endotoxemia and proinflammatory cytokines
Dewulf et al.183	Obese women (30)	Inulin/oligofructose	↓ Endotoxemia
Andreasen et al.184	Patients with T2DM (45)	L. acidophilus NCFM75	Preserved insulin sensitivity ↓ Inflammation
Schiffrin et al.185	Elderly persons (74)	Oligosaccharides	↓TNF-α and IL-6 mRNAs
			↓Serum sCD14
Andreasen et al.184	Patients with T2DM (45)	L. acidophilus	Preserved insulin sensitivity
			Did not affect systemic inflammation
Anderson et al.186	Elective surgical patients (137)	Combination of probiotics	No measurable effect on bacterial translocation or systemic inflammation
Kotzampassi et al.187	Trauma patients	Probiotics along with and inulin, oat bran, pectin, and resistant starch	↓ Rate of systemic inflammatory response, syndrome, infections, severe sepsis, and mortality

HD, hemodialysis; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus.