Table 2.
Univariable analyses of association between candidate determinants and postnatal psychological distress.
| Frequency (%) | Prevalence (%) | β(95% CI) | P-value | OverallP-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Socioeconomic factors | |||||
| Maternal age in years(N=9076) | 0.551 | ||||
| Mean age (SD) | 23.8 (4.9) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 0.551 | ||
| <20 | 1810 (19.9) | 181 (10.0) | |||
| 20–24 | 3462 (38.1) | 333 (9.6) | |||
| 25–29 | 2600 (28.7) | 244 (9.4) | |||
| 30–34 | 824 (9.1) | 90 (10.9) | |||
| >34 | 380 (4.2) | 886 (9.8) | |||
| Asset score (first asset quintile: richest,N=9001) | <0.001 | ||||
| First | 1796 (20.0) | 77 (8.7) | [ref] | ||
| Second | 1802 (20.0) | 83 (9.4) | 1.23 (1.07, 1.41) | 0.004 | |
| Third | 1796 (20.0) | 77 (8.7) | 1.36 (1.20, 1.56) | <0.001 | |
| Fourth | 1793 (19.9) | 100 (11.3) | 1.46 (1.24, 1.73) | <0.001 | |
| Fifth | 1814 (20.2) | 110 (12.4) | 1.96 (1.63, 2.37) | <0.001 | |
| Caste (N=9078)⁎ | <0.001 | ||||
| Advantaged | 174 (1.9) | 12 (6.9) | [ref] | ||
| Less advantaged | 2766 (30.5) | 238 (8.6) | 1.34 (0.97, 1.83) | 0.072 | |
| Not advantaged | 4508 (49.7) | 458 (10.2) | 1.48 (1.07, 2.05) | 0.018 | |
| Disadvantaged | 1630 (18.0) | 178 (10.9) | 1.79 (1.33, 2.42) | <0.001 | |
| Maternal education (N=8979) | <0.001 | ||||
| Higher secondary and higher | 643 (7.2) | 39 (6.1) | [ref] | ||
| Secondary | 714 (8.0) | 49 (6.9) | 1.12 (0.90, 1.38) | 0.308 | |
| Primary/preprimary/non-formal | 1165 (13.0) | 92 (7.9) | 1.45 (1.18, 1.77) | <0.001 | |
| No schooling | 6457 (71.9) | 699 (10.8) | 1.85 (1.53, 2.24) | <0.001 | |
| Husband's education (N=9007) | <0.001 | ||||
| Higher secondary and higher | 1689 (18.8) | 114 (6.8) | [ref] | ||
| Secondary | 1397 (15.5) | 131 (9.4) | 1.15 (1.01, 1.31) | 0.041 | |
| Primary/preprimary/non-formal | 1884 (20.9) | 155 (8.2) | 1.19 (1.02, 1.37) | 0.022 | |
| No schooling | 2037 (44.8) | 481 (11.9) | 1.74 (1.49, 2.02) | <0.001 | |
| Religion (N=9074) | 0.623 | ||||
| Hindu | 8097 (89.2) | 780 (9.6) | [ref] | ||
| Muslim or other | 977 (10.8) | 106 (10. 9) | 1.03 (0.91, 1.18) | 0.623 | |
| Ethnicity (N=9077) | 0.013 | ||||
| Hills (Pahadi) | 354 (3.9) | 14 (4.0) | [ref] | ||
| Plains (Madheshi) | 8723 (96.1) | 872 (10.0) | 1.44 (1.08, 1.93) | 0.013 | |
| Food security (HFIAS scale) (N=8994) | <0.001 | ||||
| Food secure | 6023 (67.0) | 487 (8.1) | [ref] | ||
| Mildly food insecure | 1130 (12.6) | 118 (10.4) | 1.18 (0.94, 1.48) | 0.142 | |
| Moderately food insecure | 1500 (16.7) | 211 (14.1) | 1.66 (1.28, 2.16) | <0.001 | |
| Severely food insecure | 341 (3.8) | 55 (16.1) | 2.94 (1.89, 4.55) | <0.001 | |
| Gender-based and cultural factors | |||||
| Age at marriage (N=9078) | 0.333 | ||||
| 18+ | 1340 (14.8) | 91 (6.8) | [ref] | ||
| 16-17 | 5034 (55.5) | 528 (10.5) | 1.18 (1.01, 1.37) | 0.034 | |
| 13–15 | 2523 (27.8) | 247 (9.8) | 1.18 (0.97, 1.43) | 0.101 | |
| < 13 | 181 (2.0) | 20 (11.1) | 0.98 (0.70, 1.37) | 0.906 | |
| Ever had a son (N=9047) | 0.003 | ||||
| Yes | 6753 (74.6) | 609 (9.0) | [ref] | ||
| No | 2294 (25.4) | 271 (11.8) | 1.25 (1.08, 1.44) | 0.003 | |
| Restricted diet after childbirth (N=9070) | 0.504 | ||||
| No | 7576 (83.5) | 753 (9.9) | [ref] | ||
| Yes | 1494 (16.5) | 132 (8.8) | 0.92 (0.73, 1.17) | 0.504 | |
| Mainly stayed in the parental home for the early postnatal period (N=9064) | 0.044 | ||||
| Yes | 2032 (22.4) | 210 (10.3) | [ref] | ||
| No | 7032 (77.6) | 676 (9.6) | 1.14 (1.00, 1.29) | 0.044 | |
| Reproductive health factors | |||||
| Parity (N=9042) | 0.022 | ||||
| 1-2 children | 5282 (58.4) | 469 (8.9) | [ref] | ||
| 3-4 children | 2936 (32.5) | 295 (10.1) | 1.18 (0.90, 1.14) | 0.558 | |
| 5 or more children | 824 (9.1) | 119 (14.4) | 1.34 (0.09, 1.66) | 0.006 | |
| Use of family planning methods (N=9074) | 0.840 | ||||
| Yes | 226 (2.5) | 24 (10.6) | [ref] | ||
| No | 8848 (97.5) | 862 (9.7) | 1.02 (0.80, 1.31) | 0.840 | |
| Serious perinatal health problem (N=9078) | <0.001 | ||||
| No | 8301 (91.4) | 756 (9.1) | [ref] | ||
| Yes | 777 (8.6) | 130 (16.7) | 1.68 (1.30, 2.19) | <0.001 | |
| Multiple birth (N=9076) | 0.005 | ||||
| Singleton | 9014 (99.3) | 874 (9.7) | [ref] | ||
| Twins or triplets | 62 (0.7) | 12 (19.4) | 2.31 (1.29, 4.15) | 0.005 | |
| Antenatal care received (N=9027) | <0.001 | ||||
| Satisfactory care | 2011 (22.3) | 144 (7.2) | [ref] | ||
| Some care | 4080 (45.2) | 383 (9.4) | 1.30 (1.15, 1.46) | <0.001 | |
| No care | 2936 (32.5) | 357 (12.2) | 1.53 (1.35, 1.73) | <0.001 | |
| Institutional delivery (N=8942) | 0.015 | ||||
| Yes | 2276 (25.5) | 228 (10.0) | [ref] | ||
| No | 6666 (74.6) | 649 (9.7) | 1.15 (1.03, 1.30) | 0.015 | |
| Caesarean section (N=9078) | 0.001 | ||||
| No | 8698 (95.8) | 822 (9.5) | [ref] | ||
| Yes | 380 (4.2) | 64 (16.8) | 1.67 (1.24, 2.26) | 0.001 | |
| Short birth interval (N=9031) | 0.406 | ||||
| No | 6654 (73.7) | 671 (10.1) | [ref] | ||
| Yes | 2377 (26.3) | 213 (9.0) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) | 0.406 | |
| Recent history of miscarriage/stillbirth /infant death (N=9029) | 0.223 | ||||
| No (infant is alive or no previous pregnancies) | 8598 (95.2) | 837 (9.7) | [ref] | ||
| Yes | 431 (4.8) | 47 (10.9) | 1.18 (0.90, 1.54) | 0.223 | |
[ref] reference category.
⁎
Caste categories: disadvantaged low castes—Dalit; non-advantaged—Janajati, Mandal and Muslim groups; advantaged high and middle caste groups—Brahman, Yadav, Koiri and Sudi/Teli.