Table 1.

WISDM subscales and hypotheses of outcomes by smoker type.

WISDM scale	Description	Hypothesis about relative differences^a
Primary Dependence Motives
Tolerance	Needing to smoke more over time to get desired effects or ability to smoke large amounts without acute toxicity.	↑ DS, whose smoking has increased to a greater degree, and whose relatively uninterrupted smoking seems more likely to induce tolerance
Craving	Smoking in response to craving or intense and/or frequent urges	↑ DS, because craving is considered a hallmark of dependence
Automaticity	Smoking without awareness or intention.	↑ DS, where smoking is frequent and routine, and thus subject to becoming automatic
Loss of Control	Perceived loss of volitional control over smoking.	↑ DS, because of their greater dependence and apparent need to smoke. Loss of control is considered central to dependence (American Psychiatric Association, 2000)
Secondary Dependence Motives
Behavioral Choice	Smoking despite constraints or negative consequences and/or the lack of other options or reinforcers.	↑ DS, because of insensitivity to consequences is a hallmark of addictive use (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), as is the dominance of drug use, compared to other activities, as a reinforcer (NDSS; Shiffman et al., 2004b)
Affiliative Attachment	Emotional attachment to smoking.	↑ DS, because of their greater involvement in smoking
Cognitive Enhancement	Smoking to improve cognitive functioning	? Unclear, because DS may be more likely to need smoking to overcome withdrawal-induced cognitive deficits, but cognitive enhancement may not depend on addiction (Shiffman et al., 1995; West and Hack, 1991), and ITS could seek acute cognitive enhancement in particular settings
Negative Reinforcement	The tendency or desire to smoke to ameliorate negative internal states.	↑ DS, because much negative reinforcement is thought to be due to amelioration of withdrawal, and because negative-affect smoking patterns are closely tied to dependence (Kassel et al., 2003)
Positive Reinforcement	The desire to smoke to experience a “buzz” or to enhance an already positive feeling or experience.	↑ ITS, because this refers to acute positive effects of smoking and because it is consistent with the hypothesis that ITS are social smokers who smoke in positive situations such as parties
Taste-Sensory Properties	Smoke to experience the smell, taste, and sensation of smoking.	↑ ITS, for whom the immediate positive experience of smoking seems more relevant, whereas DS are thought to smoke to ameliorate the negative effects of not smoking. Consistent with the notion that dependence involves ‘wanting’ to smoke, rather than ‘liking’ to smoke (Robinson and Berridge, 1993)
Weight Control	The use of cigarettes to control body weight or appetite	↑ ITS, for whom positive effects are likely to be more important. Weight control seems a prominent motive early in smoking careers (Austin and Gortmaker, 2001) and ITS smoking is seen as similar to early pre-addictive smoking
Cue Exposure	Perceived link between cue exposure and the desire or tendency to smoke.	↑ ITS, as their smoking seems to be more situation-specific, in contrast to pervasive smoking among DS
Social Goads	Influenced by social stimuli or contexts that model or promote smoking.	↑ ITS, as it is consistent with the view of ITS as social smokers. Social influence is also thought to be strongest early in smokers’ careers, before dependence has set in (Barton et al., 1982; Russell, 1971)

Hypotheses refer to differences in relative differences within the standardized WISDM profiles, and not to differences in raw-score profiles, where we expect DS to always score higher, due to their greater engagement with and dependence on smoking.