. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Apr 1.

Published in final edited form as: Mov Disord. 2009 Jul 15;24(9):1267–1279. doi: 10.1002/mds.22504

TABLE 3.

Summary of findings supporting increased activation of immune responses in patients with tic disorders and Tourette syndrome

	References of studies supporting the finding
Changes in gene expression
Over-expression of genes modulating cytotoxicity and antigen presentation of NK and CD8+ T lymphocytes in PBMC	40–42
Over-expression of the D5 dopamine receptor gene in PBMC	50
Changes in lymphocyte subpopulation numbers
Reduced percentage of CD4+CD25+ natural regulatory	49 ^a
T lymphocytes (Tregs) in moderate/severe patients
Correlation of Tregs percentage with disease severity	49 ^a
Decreased percentage of β18+ CD8+ T lymphocytes in moderate/severe patients	49 ^a
Increased number of CD95+ T lymphocytes	52
Increased number of CD69+ B lymphocytes	52
Changes in the synthesis of effector molecules by immune competent cells
Increased plasma levels of TNFα and IL-12	58 ^a
Correlation of TNFα and IL-12 plasma levels with disease severity	58 ^a
Increased plasma levels of sVCAM-1 and sE-selectin	61
Increased plasma levels of neopterin	13 ^a
Increased synthesis of anti-neuronal antibodies (CONTROVERSIAL)	11, 65, 67, 74, 76–80
Increased density of Fc μ receptors (receptors for IgM) on B lymphocytes	53

NK, natural killer cells; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-12, interleukin-12; sVCAM-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; sE-selectin, soluble E-selectin; Fc, Fragment crystallizable; IgM, immunoglobulin M.

The study combined patients with Tourette’s syndrome (or other chronic tic disorder) and patients with pediatric-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder.