. 2014 Mar 14;46(3):e85. doi: 10.1038/emm.2013.165

Table 2. Characteristics of immune induction depending on the routes of mucosal immunization.

Route of immunization	Effective compartment	Form	Characteristics (advantage/disadvantage)	Examples	Reference
Oral	Gastrointestinal tract, salivary gland, mammary gland	Liquid, pills	Enhances immune response both in systemic and mucosal areas; safe; easy to vaccinate; easy to scale up/induction of tolerance, the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract	Rotavirus, Poliovirus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, Cholera toxin	⁶
Intranasal	Upper respiratory tract, genital tract	Sprays, drop	Enhances immune response both in systemic and mucosal areas; easy to vaccinate/side effects such as Bell's palsy, damage to nasal epithelium	Influenza type A, H1N1 influenza	²⁹
Pulmonary	Respiratory tract	Aerosol, powders	Enhances immune response both in systemic and mucosal areas; easy to vaccinate, simplified logistics/requirement of device, difficulty in vaccination	Edmonston-Zagreb	³⁰
Sublingual	Respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts	Liquid, pills	Quick diffusion into the venous circulation/lack of strong adjuvants, difficulty in vaccine formulation	HIV-1 gp41,	³¹
Intravaginal/Rectal	Genital tract	Cream	High relevance for sexually transmitted diseases/difficulty in inoculation	HIV-1, HSV-2	^{32, 33}
Ocular	Ocular system	Drops	Generation of ocular mucosal immunity	HSV-2	^{34, 35}

Abbreviation: HSV, Herpes simplex virus.