Table 3. Clinical and cardiometabolic characteristic of adolescents and adults stratified by parental history categories.
| Phenotype | Parental history categories |
Adolescent |
Adults |
Meta-analysis |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Value | Padjusted | Value | Padjusted | Pfixed | Prandom | PQ | I2 | ||
| N | No parental | 1861 (91.86%) | — | 411 (74.05%) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 95 (4.69%) | — | 45 (8.11%) | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Maternal | 69 (3.41%) | — | 84 (15.14%) | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Both | 1 (0.05%) | — | 15 (2.70%) | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Sex (male %) | No parental | 833 (44.8%) | — | 199 (48%) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 55 (57.9%) | 0.0130 | 23 (51%) | 0.7316 | — | — | — | — | |
| Maternal | 34 (49.3%) | 0.4597 | 39 (46%) | 0.7395 | — | — | — | — | |
| Both | — | — | 7 (47%) | 0.8939 | — | — | — | — | |
| Age (years) | No parental | 15.55±2.04 | — | 43.9±8.35 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 15.88±2.13 | 0.0649 | 42.04±7.35 | 0.1373 | — | — | — | — | |
| Maternal | 15.6±2.03 | 0.7743 | 43.26±7.99 | 0.5398 | — | — | — | — | |
| Both | — | — | 39.67±7.12 | 0.0505 | — | — | — | — | |
| Obesity traits | |||||||||
| Body height (cm) | No parental | 161.4±8.3 | Reference | 161.6±8.1 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 162.7±9.7 | 0.6420 | 160.9±7.7 | 0.1312 | 0.1999 | 0.1999 | 0.3541 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 161.9±9.5 | 0.9869 | 160.1±9.1 | 0.0434 | 0.1289 | 0.2875 | 0.1805 | 0.4423 | |
| Both | — | — | 160.4±10.6 | 0.2393 | — | — | — | — | |
| Body weight (kg) | No parental | 52.1±11.2 | Reference | 61.8±10.9 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 54.9±13.8 | 0.2115 | 63±10.3 | 0.6155 | 0.1924 | 0.1924 | 0.7335 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 55.9±11.7 | 0.0083 | 63.6±14 | 0.0727 | 0.0020 | 0.0020 | 0.4299 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 59.5±10.9 | 0.3407 | — | — | — | — | |
| Body mass index (kg m−2) | No parental | 19.9±3.4 | Reference | 23.6±3.3 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 20.6±4 | 0.1224 | 24.3±3.6 | 0.1480 | 0.0367 | 0.0367 | 0.7275 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 21.2±3.7 | 0.0016 | 24.7±4.2 | 0.0042 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 0.8105 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 23.1±3.2 | 0.7137 | — | — | — | — | |
| Waist circumference | |||||||||
| Male (cm) | No parental | 71.2±8.5 | Reference | 83.8±8.2 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 72.2±8.9 | 0.6683 | 82.7±7 | 0.5537 | 0.9611 | 0.9611 | 0.4653 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 73.9±9.9 | 0.0550 | 87.8±10.4 | 0.0066 | 0.0010 | 0.0010 | 0.5472 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 81.9±8.5 | 0.6483 | — | — | — | — | |
| Female (cm) | No parental | 65.6±6.6 | Reference | 74.1±8.3 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 67.7±8.2 | 0.0554 | 76.7±11.5 | 0.0745 | 0.0107 | 0.0107 | 0.5503 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 67.2±8 | 0.1923 | 74.9±8.4 | 0.5364 | 0.1626 | 0.1626 | 0.7129 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 69.6±5.1 | 0.2156 | — | — | — | — | |
| Hip circumference (cm) | No parental | 88.9±7.7 | Reference | 93.71±5.83 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 90.2±9.3 | 0.3157 | 94.36±6.6 | 0.6054 | 0.2703 | 0.2703 | 0.8074 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 90.5±8.3 | 0.1078 | 95.16±7.61 | 0.0482 | 0.0108 | 0.0108 | 0.9690 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 92.3±5.1 | 0.3331 | — | — | — | — | |
| Waist–hip ratio | No parental | 0.77±0.05 | Reference | 0.8±0.1 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 0.78±0.04 | 0.0651 | 0.8±0.1 | 0.4977 | 0.0510 | 0.0510 | 0.8090 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 0.78±0.06 | 0.0717 | 0.85±0.08 | 0.0736 | 0.0116 | 0.0116 | 0.7682 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 0.81±0.07 | 0.3082 | — | — | — | — | |
| Body fat percentage (%) | No parental | 21.2±6.9 | Reference | 27.5±6.6 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 21.3±8.3 | 0.3101 | 28.1±7.8 | 0.3868 | 0.1843 | 0.1843 | 0.8927 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 22.7±7.2 | 0.0295 | 29.1±7.5 | 0.0372 | 0.0026 | 0.0026 | 0.8841 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 27.3±6.1 | 0.8967 | — | — | — | — | |
| Glucose-related traits | |||||||||
| Fasting plasma glucose (mmol l−1) | No parental | 4.7±0.35 | Reference | 4.96±0.62 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 4.75±0.36 | 0.1505 | 5.15±0.69 | 0.0461 | 0.0427 | 0.1580 | 0.1620 | 0.4886 | |
| Maternal | 4.68±0.35 | 0.5541 | 5.18±0.82 | 0.0026 | 0.3461 | 0.4565 | 0.0033 | 0.8838 | |
| Both | — | — | 5.23±0.56 | 0.0560 | — | — | — | — | |
| Fasting plasma insulin (pmol l−1) | No parental | 46.8 (45.8–47.7) | Reference | 44.4 (41.3–47.8) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 47.7 (43.7–52.1) | 0.4590 | 46.3 (38.3–56.1) | 0.8039 | 0.4357 | 0.4357 | 0.9584 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 52.8 (47.2–59) | 0.0122 | 59.8 (51.6–69.4) | 7.8 × 10−4 | 1.1 × 10−4 | 0.0178 | 0.0958 | 0.6395 | |
| Both | — | — | 45 (30.3–66.8) | 0.9490 | — | — | — | — | |
| HOMA-IR | No parental | 1.62 (1.59–1.66) | Reference | 1.62 (1.51–1.75) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 1.68 (1.53–1.84) | 0.3453 | 1.77 (1.44–2.16) | 0.5560 | 0.2727 | 0.2727 | 0.8515 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 1.82 (1.62–2.05) | 0.0222 | 2.29 (1.96–2.67) | 2.1 × 10−4 | 1.2 × 10−4 | 0.0444 | 0.0382 | 0.7671 | |
| Both | — | — | 1.73 (1.14–2.64) | 0.8010 | — | — | — | — | |
| HOMA-β | No parental | 135.8 (132.8–139) | Reference | 109 (100.9–117.8) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 132.7 (119.8–147.1) | 0.8636 | 101.1 (82.4–124) | 0.4317 | 0.6347 | 0.6347 | 0.5156 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 157.3 (141.1–175.3) | 0.0093 | 129.2 (109.6–152.4) | 0.0877 | 0.0019 | 0.0019 | 0.9499 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 91 (63.8–129.9) | 0.2390 | — | — | — | — | |
| 2-h glucosea (mmol l−1) | No parental | 6.05±1.61 | Reference | 6.39±2.31 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 5.85±1.24 | 0.7081 | 6.04±2.6 | 0.4750 | 0.4389 | 0.4389 | 0.8190 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 6.52±1.73 | 0.3097 | 7.17±2.79 | 0.0055 | 0.0041 | 0.0041 | 0.4661 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 6.97±2.67 | 0.2277 | — | — | — | — | |
| 2-h insulina (pmol l−1) | No parental | 460.8 (415.9–510.5) | Reference | 271.4 (252.8–291.5) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 409.2 (302.1–554.3) | 0.6941 | 270.9 (219.1–335) | 0.9497 | 0.7959 | 0.7959 | 0.7616 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 613.8 (390.4–964.9) | 0.2193 | 348.8 (295.2–412.1) | 0.0057 | 0.0024 | 0.0024 | 0.9633 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 269.3 (172.7–419.9) | 0.9047 | — | — | — | — | |
| Glucose AUC during OGTT at 0–120 mina | No parental | 814.9±160.9 | Reference | 893.8±224 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 817±134.7 | 0.8978 | 901.7±247.3 | 0.6728 | 0.6912 | 0.6912 | 0.8468 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 858.1±148.1 | 0.3296 | 974.9±269.3 | 0.0022 | 0.0019 | 0.0019 | 0.3891 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 999.5±270.6 | 0.0361 | — | — | — | — | |
| Insulin AUC during OGTT at 0–120 mina | No parental | 59702 (55381–64360) | Reference | 36227 (34372–38182) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 50525 (40950–62340) | 0.3569 | 40645 (33874–48770) | 0.2762 | 0.6612 | 0.9291 | 0.1740 | 0.4588 | |
| Maternal | 65970 (43200–100743) | 0.6458 | 42057 (36831–48025) | 0.0319 | 0.0307 | 0.0307 | 0.6810 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 33719 (24145–47090) | 0.4542 | — | — | — | — | |
| Insulinogenic indexa | No parental | 32 (29–35.4) | Reference | 13.2 (12.2–14.3) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 27.4 (19.5–38.4) | 0.4985 | 15.4 (11.7–20.4) | 0.3373 | 0.6863 | 0.7705 | 0.2697 | 0.1793 | |
| Maternal | 27.8 (17.6–44.1) | 0.4254 | 12.6 (10.3–15.5) | 0.5838 | 0.4084 | 0.4084 | 0.6139 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 8.1 (4.5–14.7) | 0.0114 | — | — | — | — | |
| Insulin sensitivity indexa | No parental | 68.2 (62.7–74.3) | Reference | 93.8 (88.4–99.6) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 74.2 (57–96.5) | 0.8120 | 85.4 (71.5–101.9) | 0.3830 | 0.5361 | 0.5361 | 0.5091 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 51.6 (33.9–78.4) | 0.1701 | 70.9 (61.8–81.4) | 2.0 × 10−4 | 6.9 × 10−5 | 6.9 × 10−5 | 0.8594 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 88.8 (60.3–130.7) | 0.7915 | — | — | — | — | |
| Oral disposition indexa | No parental | 17.6 (15.9–19.6) | Reference | 8.46 (7.65–9.36) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 14 (11–18) | 0.2193 | 8.54 (6.1–11.95) | 0.9802 | 0.4158 | 0.4158 | 0.3552 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 11 (8–15.2) | 0.0458 | 5.55 (4.4–7) | 5.7 × 10−4 | 6.3 × 10−5 | 6.3 × 10−5 | 0.9445 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 4.66 (2.38–9.16) | 0.0178 | — | — | — | — | |
| Blood pressure | |||||||||
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | No parental | 116.8±12.6 | Reference | 117±17.8 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 118.9±14 | 0.4134 | 114.2±17.9 | 0.5031 | 0.6635 | 0.6635 | 0.3351 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 118.1±13.3 | 0.5032 | 121.9±19.4 | 0.0044 | 0.0237 | 0.1744 | 0.0605 | 0.7162 | |
| Both | — | — | 119.4±18 | 0.2091 | — | — | — | — | |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | No parental | 72.6±9.2 | Reference | 75.5±10.7 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 72.2±9.7 | 0.7737 | 73.8±10.2 | 0.3681 | 0.4725 | 0.4725 | 0.5387 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 71.3±10.4 | 0.2821 | 79±12.1 | 0.0014 | 0.1548 | 0.6080 | 0.0021 | 0.8940 | |
| Both | — | — | 76.1±11.6 | 0.5041 | — | — | — | — | |
| Lipid profile | |||||||||
| Total cholesterol (mmol l−1) | No parental | 4.17±0.7 | Reference | 5.21±0.93 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 4.23±0.73 | 0.2548 | 5.17±0.91 | 0.9495 | 0.2990 | 0.2990 | 0.6369 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 4.13±0.71 | 0.6784 | 5.37±1.02 | 0.0864 | 0.4542 | 0.5534 | 0.1095 | 0.6097 | |
| Both | — | — | 5.46±0.95 | 0.1044 | — | — | — | — | |
| Triglycerides (mmol l−1) | No parental | 0.76 (0.75–0.77) | Reference | 1.07 (1.01–1.12) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 0.76 (0.71–0.82) | 0.6747 | 1.11 (0.95–1.29) | 0.5535 | 0.5171 | 0.5171 | 0.7423 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 0.79 (0.72–0.88) | 0.3486 | 1.27 (1.12–1.43) | 0.0019 | 0.0073 | 0.1144 | 0.0656 | 0.7050 | |
| Both | — | — | 0.94 (0.76–1.15) | 0.5206 | — | — | — | — | |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol l−1) | No parental | 1.6±0.31 | Reference | 1.59±0.42 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 1.64±0.32 | 0.1688 | 1.51±0.34 | 0.2617 | 0.4943 | 0.9986 | 0.1010 | 0.6282 | |
| Maternal | 1.54±0.3 | 0.1040 | 1.5±0.43 | 0.0413 | 0.0107 | 0.0107 | 0.5793 | 0.0000 | |
| Both | — | — | 1.72±0.4 | 0.1742 | — | — | — | — | |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol l−1) | No parental | 2.2±0.6 | Reference | 3.06±0.84 | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 2.22±0.67 | 0.5528 | 3.14±0.8 | 0.3705 | 0.3522 | 0.3522 | 0.5901 | 0.0000 | |
| Maternal | 2.19±0.62 | 0.9907 | 3.2±0.88 | 0.0857 | 0.2957 | 0.3828 | 0.1714 | 0.4653 | |
| Both | — | — | 3.28±0.87 | 0.1410 | — | — | — | — | |
| Cardiovascular risk factor | |||||||||
| Albumin-creatinine ratio | No parental | 0.61 (0.58–0.64) | Reference | 0.81 (0.73–0.89) | Reference | — | — | — | — |
| Paternal | 0.59 (0.47–0.73) | 0.9103 | 0.62 (0.49–0.78) | 0.1625 | 0.4879 | 0.5028 | 0.2226 | 0.3277 | |
| Maternal | 0.56 (0.43–0.73) | 0.5823 | 1.07 (0.79–1.45) | 0.0233 | 0.1983 | 0.5440 | 0.0505 | 0.7386 | |
| Both | — | — | 0.88 (0.66–1.17) | 0.6263 | — | — | — | — | |
Abbreviations: AUC, areas under the curve; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HOMA-IR, homoeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA-β, homoeostasis model assessment of β-cell function; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test.
Data were expressed as n, %, mean±s.d. or geometric mean (95% confidence interval).
Padjusted refers to P-value obtained from linear regression adjusted by sex and age.
Pfixed and Prandom refer to P-value obtained from meta-analysis using fixed- and random-effect model, respectively.
PQ refers to P-value of Cochran's Q statistics in heterogeneity test.
I2 index is used to quantify the degree of heterogeneity of β-coefficient. I2 values around 25, 50 and 75% would mean low, medium and high heterogeneity.
Each group (paternal, maternal and both parental history of diabetes) was compared with the reference group (no parental history of diabetes) in linear regression analysis.
a
Indicates only a subset of samples (285 adolescents and 555 adults) who were included in the analysis.