Table 3.
Odds ratios and 95% CIs of unhealthy eating behaviors for cardiometabolic conditions.
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| LNDE alone | ||||
| (total n = 46,732)a | ||||
| Current smoking | 1.46 (1.39–1.52)†† | 1.16 (1.10–1.21)†† | 1.15 (1.09–1.21)†† | 1.16 (1.10–1.22)†† |
| Daily alcohol drinking | 2.27 (2.15–2.39)†† | 2.20 (2.08–2.32)†† | 2.23 (2.10–2.36)†† | 2.23 (2.10–2.36)†† |
| Having regular exercise | 0.87 (0.83–0.91)†† | 0.84 (0.80–0.88)†† | 0.85 (0.81–0.89)†† | 0.85 (0.80–0.89)†† |
| Elevated blood pressure | 1.11 (1.06–1.16)†† | 1.07 (1.02–1.12)† | 1.01 (0.96–1.06) | |
| Low HDL-C | 0.83 (0.77–0.91)†† | 0.97 (0.89–1.06) | 0.89 (0.81–0.97)* | |
| High–normal HbA1c | 0.92 (0.87–0.97)† | 1.07 (1.01–1.13)* | 1.02 (0.97–1.08) | |
| Proteinuria | 1.11 (1.02–1.21)* | 1.09 (1.00–1.19)* | 1.08 (0.99–1.18) | 1.06 (0.97–1.16) |
| Continuous BMI | 1.03 (1.03–1.04)†† | |||
| MetS | 1.15 (1.08–1.23)†† | 1.15 (1.08–1.23)†† | ||
| Six BMI categories (N) | ||||
| ≤18.9 kg/m2 (4,206) | 0.97 (0.89–1.06) | |||
| 19.0–20.9 kg/m2 (9,576) | 0.95 (0.89–1.02) | |||
| 21.0–22.9 kg/m2 (12,257) | 1 (reference) | |||
| 23.0–24.9 kg/m2 (9,974) | 1.08 (1.01–1.15)* | |||
| 25.0–26.9 kg/m2 (5,745) | 1.21 (1.12–1.30)†† | |||
| ≥27.0 kg/m2 (4,974) | 1.34 (1.24–1.45)†† | |||
| Skipping breakfast alone | ||||
| (total n = 42,394)b | ||||
| Current smoking | 3.13 (2.98–3.29)†† | 2.88 (2.72–3.04)†† | 2.84 (2.68–3.01)†† | 2.85 (2.69–3.02)†† |
| Daily alcohol drinking | 1.17 (1.10–1.26)†† | 1.03 (0.95–1.11) | 1.03 (0.96–1.11) | 1.03 (0.95–1.11) |
| Having regular exercise | 0.73 (0.69–0.78)†† | 0.73 (0.68–0.78)†† | 0.72 (0.68–0.77)†† | 0.73 (0.68–0.78)†† |
| Elevated blood pressure | 0.96 (0.91–1.01) | 1.12 (1.06–1.19)† | 1.10 (1.03–1.17)† | |
| Low HDL-C | 1.05 (0.95–1.15) | 1.02 (0.92–1.12) | 0.98 (0.89–1.09) | |
| High-normal HbA1c | 0.74 (0.69–0.79) †† | 0.99 (0.92–1.07) | 0.97 (0.90–1.04) | |
| Proteinuria | 1.50 (1.37–1.64) †† | 1.35 (1.23–1.49)†† | 1.35 (1.22–1.49)†† | 1.33 (1.21–1.47)†† |
| Continuous BMI | 1.01 (1.00–1.02)* | |||
| MetS | 1.07 (0.99–1.16) | 1.06 (0.97–1.15) | ||
| Six BMI categories (N) | ||||
| ≤18.9 kg/m2 (3,996) | 1.15 (1.04–1.27)† | |||
| 19.0–20.9 kg/m2 (8,915) | 1.05 (0.97–1.14) | |||
| 21.0–22.9 kg/m2 (11,158) | 1 (reference) | |||
| 23.0–24.9 kg/m2 (8,911) | 1.03 (0.95–1.11) | |||
| 25.0–26.9 kg/m2 (5,002) | 1.00 (0.91–1.10) | |||
| ≥27.0 kg/m2 (4,412) | 1.18 (1.07–1.30)† | |||
| Skipping breakfast concomitant with LNDE | ||||
| (total n = 41,616)c | ||||
| Current smoking | 3.56 (3.38–3.76)†† | 2.79 (2.63–2.96)†† | 2.76 (2.60–2.92)†† | 2.78 (2.62–2.96)†† |
| Daily alcohol drinking | 2.12 (1.98–2.27)†† | 1.90 (1.77–2.05)†† | 1.93 (1.78–2.08)†† | 1.92 (1.78–2.08)†† |
| Having regular exercise | 0.71 (0.67–0.76)†† | 0.69 (0.64–0.74)†† | 0.69 (0.64–0.74)†† | 0.69 (0.65–0.74)†† |
| Elevated blood pressure | 1.05 (1.00–1.11) | 1.16 (1.09–1.23)†† | 1.07 (1.00–1.14) | |
| Low HDL-C | 0.86 (0.77–0.96)† | 0.92 (0.82–1.03) | 0.84 (0.75–0.95)† | |
| High-normal HbA1c | 0.76 (0.71–0.82)†† | 1.10 (1.02–1.19)* | 1.04 (0.96–1.13) | |
| Proteinuria | 1.53 (1.39–1.69)†† | 1.39 (1.25–1.54)†† | 1.37 (1.24–1.52)†† | 1.34 (1.21–1.48)†† |
| Continuous BMI | 1.04 (1.03-1.04)†† | |||
| MetS | 1.19 (1.09–1.29)†† | 1.17 (1.08–1.28)† | ||
| Six BMI categories (N) | ||||
| ≤18.9 kg/m2 (3,848) | 1.16 (1.04–1.29)† | |||
| 19.0–20.9 kg/m2 (8,662) | 1.06 (0.97–1.15) | |||
| 21.0–22.9 kg/m2 (10,879) | 1 (reference) | |||
| 23.0–24.9 kg/m2 (8,757) | 1.10 (1.01–1.19)* | |||
| 25.0–26.9 kg/m2 (5,005) | 1.20 (1.09–1.32)† | |||
| ≥27.0 kg/m2 (4,465) | 1.54 (1.40–1.70)†† |
The number of total subjects in each analysis comprises that of normal eating behavior (n = 34,971) plus that of LNDE alone (n = 11,761)a, skipping breakfast alone (n = 7,423)b, or skipping breakfast concomitant with LNDE (n = 6,645)c.
*P < 0.05, † P < 0.01, †† P < 0.0001.
The number of subjects and those with confounding factors in each unhealthy eating behavior group is the same as that in Table 1.
Model 1: Unadjusted.
Model 2: Adjusted for age, sex, current smoking (versus noncurrent smoking), daily alcohol consumption (versus infrequent/no alcohol consumption), having regular exercise (versus nonregular exercise), and past history of cardiovascular disease (versus nonpast history).
Model 3: Adjusted as for Model 2 plus MetS and proteinuria.
Model 4: Adjusted as for Model 2 plus elevated blood pressure, low HDL-C, high-normal HbA1c, BMI categories, and proteinuria.