Table 3.
Effects of Ionizing and Non-ionizing Irradiation on Expression and Activity of Oxidative Stress and Other Enzymes
| Species | Enzyme | Category | Effectors | Model; method used | Effects | Remarks | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rat | ACO (aconitase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of 3 and 9 gray (G) at a dosage rate of 12.5 cG/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver, mitochondrial post-nuclear fraction; conversion of citrate to isocitrate | activity decreased 30–90% by increasing gamma-irradiation | [66] | |
| Human | ALPL (alkaline phosphatase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | workers exposed to short-life radioactive isotopes 131I and 99Tc, blood smears; | decreased activity | [87] | |
| Human | APRT (adenyl phosphoribosyl transferase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | single dose of 1-Gy 137Cs-gamma-rays, TK6 lymphoblastoid cells; two-dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis, MALDI-TOF, immunoblotting | decreased protein level | [88] | |
| Guinea pigs | CAT (catalase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | irradiated with the doses of 8 Gy or 15 Gy, single dose/whole body, 60Co, source axis distance 80 cm, liver; activity | activity decreased at 15 Gy | [83] | |
| Mice | CAT (catalase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of γ-rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumor; activity measured as decomposition of H2O2 at 240 nm | no activity detected in control or irradiated samples | [56] | |
| Mice | CAT (catalase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of gamma-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity measured as decomposition of H2O2 at 240 nm | activity decreased with dose in tumor and non-tumor mice, activity was higher in liver of tumor mice than control | [81] | |
| Rat | CAT (catalase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body single dose of γ-radiation (5 Gy); testicular level | decreased protein level | supplementation with extract of Xylopia aethiopica and vitamin C reversed the effect | [82] |
| Mice | CAT (catalase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | Skh:HR-1 hairless mice, in vivo, single UVB irradiation; activity assays | decrease of activity by 12 h after irradiation | [86] | |
| Mice | NADPH-quinone reductase | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of γ-rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumor; activity measured as reduction of 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol | activity increased with increase in radiation dose, at 9 Gy it was about 50% higher compared to the unirradiated control | [56] | |
| Mice | NADPH-quinone reductase | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of γ-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity measured as reduction of 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol | activity increased at all doses except 9 Gy, activity higher in liver of tumor compared to non-tumor bearing mice | [81] | |
| Mice | NADPH-quinone reductase | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, Gamma-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma-rays at 1.38 Gy/min, liver; activity | activity increased up to 5 Gy and decreased thereafter | administration of phenothiazines increased the radiation effect at lower doses providing the radioprotective action | [55] |
| Mice | GLY I (glyoxalase I) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of γ-rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumor; activity measured as formation of (S)-D-lactoylglutathione | increased activity with increase in radiation dose | [56] | |
| Mice | GLY I (glyoxalase I) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of gamma-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity measured by formation of (S)-D-lactoylglutathione | increased activity in both normal and tumor-bearing animals from 1–4 Gy in a dose dependent manner, declined beyond 4 G, activity higher in liver of tumor-bearing compared to non-tumor bearing mice | [81] | |
| Guinea pigs | GPX (glutathione peroxidase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | irradiated with the doses of 8 Gy or 15 Gy, single dose/whole body, 60Co, source axis distance 80 cm, liver; activity | activity increased at 15 Gy | [83] | |
| Human | GPX (glutathione peroxidase) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | tumor cell lines (MCF-7, LXF and Sk-Mel), single doses (5, 10, and 20 Gy); | no significant change of mRNA expression | [42] | |
| Mice | GST (glutathione transferase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of gamma rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumors activity measured as formation of GSHCDNB (1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene) conjugate, Western blotting | increased activity between 4 an 9 Gy, dose dependent increase of protein level compared to control tissue | [56] | |
| Mice | GST (glutathione transferase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of gamma-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity expressed as 1-chloro-2,4-dintrobenzene conjugate formed, Western blotting | increased activity depending on the dose of radiation in both normal and tumor-bearing animals | [81] | |
| Mice | GST (glutathione transferase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of γ-rays at 1.38 Gy/min, liver; activity | activity increased up to 5 Gy and decreased thereafter | administration of phenothiazines increased the radiation effect at lower doses providing the radio protective action | [55] |
| Mice | GST (glutathione transferase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 and 9 Gy | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment (100 mg/kg/day, for 2 days) prior to whole body irradiation increased the 30 day survival rate of mice to 91% | [89] |
| Rat | GST (glutathione transferase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | decreased mRNA expression at 3 and 8 hr after irradiation, followed by increase of mRNA level by 2-fold at 15 and 24 hr after irradiation and return to the levels of untreated rats at 48 hr after treatment, paralleled changes of protein levels with those of mRNA | oltipraz pretreatment before irradiation resulted in additional increase of mRNA expression and increased the survival rate, protective role of oltipraz suggested | [90] |
| Rat | GST (glutathione transferase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body single dose of γ-radiation (5 Gy), testicular level; protein level | decrease of protein level | supplementation with extract of Xylopia aethiopica and vitamin C reversed the effect | [82] |
| Rat | GST (glutathione S-transferase) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | preliminary radiation-exposed, transplanted Guerin’s carcinoma, liver, microsomes | decreased activity in the latent and logarithmic phases of oncogenesis, no effect on terminal stages of Guerin’s carcinoma growth | [57] | |
| Human | GST (glutathione transferase) | Environmental impact | Radioactivity-contaminated areas | placental samples at term, cytosolic fraction; activity measured as GSH conjugation with 1-chloro-2,4 dinitrobenzene | down-regulation of activity and mRNA level in samples exposed to highest levels of radioactivity | imbalance in detoxification capacity suggested | [54] |
| Rat | GST (glutathione transferase) | Clinical impact | X-rays | preliminary radiation-exposed rats with Guerin’s carcinoma, liver, microsomal fraction; activity | reduced activity | [57] | |
| Rat | GSTA2-2 (glutathione transferase A2-2) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | increase of mRNA level (threefold) after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation exhibited 80%–93% suppression in the radiation-inducible increases in the mRNA level and reduced the mean survival time | [91] |
| Rat | GSTA2-2 (glutathione transferase A2-2) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression 2-to 2.8-fold | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment mRNA expression at 24 h after 2-AP treatment | [89] |
| Mice | GSTA3-2 (glutathione transferase A3-3) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment increased mRNA expression | [89] |
| Rat | GSTA3-3 (glutathione transferase alpha3) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | increase of mRNA level (3-fold) after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation exhibited 80%–93% suppression in the radiation-inducible increases in the mRNA level and reduced the mean survival time | [91] |
| Rat | GSTA3-3 (glutathione transferase A3-3) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(Allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment caused smaller increase mRNA expression at 24 h after 2-AP treatment | [89] |
| Rat | GSTA5-5 (glutathione transferase A5-5) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | increase of mRNA level (3-fold) after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation exhibited 80%–93% suppression in the radiation-inducible increases in the mRNA level and reduced the mean survival time | [91] |
| Rat | GSTA5-5 (glutathione transferase A5-5) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment caused smaller increase mRNA expression at 24 h after treatment | [89] |
| Rat | GSTM1-1 (glutathione transferase M1-1) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | increase of mRNA level (3-fold) after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation at doses of 1 mg/kg exhibited 68% suppression in the radiation-inducible increases in the mRNA level | [91] |
| Rat | GSTM1-1 (glutathione transferase M1-1) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment caused smaller increase mRNA expression at 24 h after treatment | [89] |
| Rat | GSTM2-2 (glutathione transferase M2-2) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | no significant change in mRNA level after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation exhibited no significant change in mRNA level | [91] |
| Rat | GSTM2-2 (glutathione transferase M2-2) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment caused smaller increase mRNA expression at 24 h after treatment | [89] |
| Human | GSTO1-1 (glutathione transferase O1-1) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | single dose of 1-Gy 137Cs-gamma-rays, TK6 lymphoblastoid cells; two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis, MALDI-TOF, immunoblotting | no change in protein level | [88] | |
| Mice | GSTP1-1 (glutathione transferase P1-1) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression | no influence of 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment | [89] |
| Human | GSTP1-1 (glutathione transferase P1-1) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | tumor cell lines (MCF-7, LXF and Sk-Mel), single doses (5, 10 and 20 Gy); | increase of mRNA expression | [42] | |
| Human | GSTP1-1 (glutathione transferase P1-1) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | fractionated X-irradiation of AuxB1Chinese hamster ovary cell lines; Western blotting | increase of protein expression | [30] | |
| Murine | GSTP1-1 (glutathione transferase P1-1) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | NIH 3T3 cells treated with single doses of 5, 10 and 20 Gy | increase of mRNA expression and protein level | [45] | |
| Murine | GSTP1-1 (glutathione transferase P1-) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | human lung carcinoma cell line LXF 289, single doses of 5, 10, and 20 Gy | increase of mRNA expression and protein level | [45] | |
| Mice | LDH (L-lactate dehydrogenase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of gamma rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumor; activity measured as disappearance of NADH (340 nm) | increased activity up to 6 Gy, declined beyond 6 Gy | [56] | |
| Mice | LDH (L-lactate dehydrogenase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of gamma-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity measured by disappearance of NADH (340 nm) | increased activity at lower doses (2 and 4 Gy), declined at higher doses (6–9 Gy) in both normal and tumor-bearing animals | [81] | |
| Mice | LDH (L-lactate dehydrogenase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma- rays at 1.38 Gy/min, liver; activity | progressive increase in activity | administration of phenothiazines inhibited activity | [55] |
| Mice | LDH (L-lactate dehydrogenase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma radiation (1–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.023 Gy/s, liver activity | activity increased at doses above 3 Gy | phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride inhibited activity, dithiothreitol inhibited the release of lactate dehydrogenase | [92,93] |
| Mice | mEH (microsomal epoxide hydrolase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment at the dose of 0.5 and 8 Gy, liver; mRNA blotting | increase of mRNA expression 2- to 2.8-fold | 2-(allylthio)pyrazine pretreatment mRNA expression at 24 h after 2-AP treatment | [89] |
| Rat | mEH (microsomal epoxide hydrolase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body treatment with either 3 or 0.5 Gy of radiation/day, dosage of 12.5 cGy/min from a 60Co radiation source, liver; immunoblotting, mRNA blotting, scanning densitometry | increase of mRNA level (threefold) after 3 Gy g-irradiation | dexamethasone prior to 3 Gy irradiation exhibited 80%–93% suppression in the radiation-inducible increases in the mRNA level and reduced the mean survival time | [91] |
| Rat | mEH (microsomal epoxide hydrolase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body single dose (3 Gy) treatment, liver; immunoblotting | mRNA level transiently decreased at 3 and 8 h after irradiation, increased 3- to 4-fold at 15 to 48 h post-irradiation, returning to the level in untreated animals at 72 h, paralleled changes of protein levels with those of mRNA | mRNA level increased by oltipraz treatment | [97] |
| Human | MGMT (O6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | tumor cell lines (MCF-7, LXF, and Sk-Mel), single doses (5, 10, and 20 Gy); | no significant change of mRNA expression | [42] | |
| Human | MPO (myeloperoxydase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | workers exposed to short-life radioactive isotopes 131I and 99Tc, blood smears; stained for L-ALP and MPO and benzidine method | decreased activity | [87] | |
| Human | PP1α1 (serine/threonine protein phosphatase PP1-α1) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | single dose of 1-Gy 137Cs- gamma-rays, TK6 lymphoblastoid cells; two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, MALDI-TOF, immunoblotting | decreased protein level | [88] | |
| Guinea pigs | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | irradiated with the doses of 8 Gy or 15 Gy, single dose/whole body, 60Co, source axis distance 80 cm, liver; activity | activity decreased at 15 Gy | [83] | |
| Mice | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation of mice with Ehrlich solid tumors irradiated with different doses of gamma rays (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, solid tumor; activity measured as inhibition of autoxidation of pyrogallol | increased activity with dose up to 4 Gy and then declined beyond 4 Gy at 24 h after irradiation | [56] | |
| Mice | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiated mice with Ehrlich solid tumor in the thigh pad and non-tumor bearing animals, irradiated with different doses of gamma-radiation (0–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.0153 Gy/s, liver; activity measured as inhibition of autoxidation of pyrogallol | activity increased with radiation dose in the liver of tumor-bearing animals, in the liver of normal animals the activity was increased up to 6 Gy and inhibited thereafter, higher activity in liver of tumor-bearing compared to non-tumor bearing mice | [81] | |
| Mice | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma- rays at 1.38 Gy/min, liver; activity | activity increased up to 5 Gy and decreased thereafter | administration of phenothiazines increased the radiation effect at lower doses providing the radioprotective action | [55] |
| Rat | SOD (superoxide dismuase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body single dose (5 Gy) treatment, testis; testicular level | decreased protein level | supplementation with extract of Xylopia aethiopica and vitamin C reversed the adverse effects of radiation | [82] |
| Human | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | Ionizing irradiation | medical workers exposed to occupational low-level doses, plasma samples; activity measured spectrophotometrically | higher SOD activity in the blood samples of exposed vs. unexposed persons | higher activity at occupational doses provide protection against the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) | [84] |
| Human | SOD (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | Ionizing irradiation | blood samples irradiated by 2Gy of gamma radiation, dose-rate 0.45 Gy/min, and the distance from the source of 74 cm; SOD activity measured spectrophotometrically | decrease of SOD activity after high dose irradiation | dysfunction of mitochondrial system suggested at higher doses | [84] |
| Human | SOD1 (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | epidermis, in vivo, chronic UVB irradiation; activity | increase of activity | [85] | |
| Murine | SOD1 (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | Skh:HR-1 hairless mice, in vivo, single UVB irradiation; activity | decrease of activity by 12 h after irradiation | [86] | |
| Zebrafish | SOD1 (superoxide dismutase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | embryos exposed for varying time to UVB on two consecutive days; spectophotometry, RT-PCR | increase of mRNA expression | [9] | |
| Human | TOP2A (topoisomerase (DNA) IIα) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | tumor cell lines (MCF-7, LXF, and Sk-Mel), single doses (5, 10, and 20 Gy); | increases of mRNA expression | [42] | |
| Human | TYMS (thymidylate synthetase) | Clinical impact | Ionizing irradiation | tumor cell lines (MCF-7, LXF and Sk-Mel), single doses (5, 10 and 20 Gy); | increases of mRNA expression | [42] | |
| Human | UQCRC1 (ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase core protein I) | Clinical impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | single dose of 1-Gy 137Cs-gamma-rays, TK6 lymphoblastoid cells; two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis, MALDI-TOF, Western blotting | decreased protein level | [88] | |
| Mice | XDH (xanthine dehydrogenase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma radiation (1–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.023 Gy/s, liver; activity | activity decreased at doses above 3 Gy | allopurinol and folic acid inhibited activity, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride restored activity | [92,93,94] |
| Mice | XOR (xanthine oxidoreductase) | Environmental impact | γ-radiation, γ-rays | whole body irradiation, different doses of gamma-rays (1–9 Gy) at a dose rate of 0.023 Gy/s or 1.38 Gy/min, liver; activity | activity progressively increased at doses above 3 Gy | phenothiazines, allopurinol, folic acid, and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride inhibited activity | [55,92,93,94] |
| Mice | XOR (xanthine oxidoreductase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | Skh:HR-1 hairless mice, in vivo, single UVB irradiation; activity | no effect on activity | [86] | |
| Human | SDH (succinate dehydrogenase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | UV (240–390 nm) irradiation, lymphocytes from human blood donors | photoinactivation immediately after UV-irradiation | [95] | |
| Human | LDH (L-lactate dehydrogenase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | UV (240–390 nm) irradiation, lymphocytes from human blood donors | photoinactivation immediately after UV-irradiation | [95] | |
| Human | COX (cytochrome c oxidase) | Environmental impact | UV irradiation | UV (240–390 nm) irradiation, lymphocytes from human blood donors | photoinactivation immediately after UV-irradiation | [95] | |
| Mice | ChAT (choline acetyl transferase) | Environmental impact | Uranium contamination | chronic exposure for 8 months by depleted uranium through drinking water 20 mg/l, cerebral cortex; RT-PCR | increase of mRNA level expression by 189% | [38] |