Abstract
Importance: Refugees and internally displaced persons are highly vulnerable to sexual violence during conflict and subsequent displacement. However, accurate estimates of the prevalence of sexual violence among in these populations remain uncertain. Objective: Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of sexual violence among refugees and displaced persons in complex humanitarian emergencies. Data Source: We conducted systematic review of relevant literature in multiple databases (EMBASE, CINAHL, and MEDLINE) through February 2013 to identify studies. We also reviewed reference lists of included articles to identify any missing sources. Study Selection: Inclusion criteria required identification of sexual violence among refugees and internally displaced persons or those displaced by conflict in complex humanitarian settings. Studies were excluded if they did not provide female sexual violence prevalence, or that included only single case reports, anecdotes, and those that focused on displacement associated with natural disasters. After a review of 1175 citations 19 unique studies were selected. Data Extraction: Two reviewers worked independently to identify final selection and a third reviewer adjudicated any differences. Descriptive and quantitative information was extracted; prevalence estimates were synthesized. Heterogeneity was assessed using I2. Main Outcomes: The main outcome of interest was sexual violence among female refugees and internally displaced persons in complex humanitarian settings. Results: The prevalence of sexual violence was estimated at 21.4% (95% CI, 14.9-28.7; I2=98.3%), using a random effects model. Statistical heterogeneity was noted with studies using probability sampling designs reporting lower prevalence of sexual violence (21.0%, 95% CI, 13.2-30.1; I2=98.6%), compared to lower quality studies (21.7%, 95% CI, 11.5-34.2; I2=97.4%). We could not rule out the presence of publication bias. Conclusions: The findings suggest that approximately one in five refugees or displaced women in complex humanitarian settings experienced sexual violence. However, this is likely an underestimation of the true prevalence given the multiple existing barriers associated with disclosure. The long-term health and social consequences of sexual violence for women and their families necessitate strategies to improve identification of survivors of sexual violence and increase prevention and response interventions in these complex settings.
Background
War places civilians at increased risk of many forms of violence. The fear of violence can promote forced and mass displacement. As of January 2012, almost 11 million people were registered as refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs), as estimated by UNHCR.1 During transitions through conflict and displacement, refugees and IDPs continue to live at heightened vulnerability to violence due to breakdown of family and social structure, and changes to law enforcement and protective structures.2 , 3 , 4 Significant efforts have been made to assess for, prevent and respond to gender-based violence (GBV) that occurs in these settings.2 , 3 , 4 , 5 However, GBV is broadly defined.6 For the purpose of this study, we focus on sexual violence as defined by the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention7 :
…any nonconsensual completed or attempted contact (between the penis and the vulva or the penis and the anus involving penetration, however slight), nonconsensual contact between the mouth and the penis, vulva, or anus; nonconsensual penetration of the anal or genital opening of another person by a hand, finger, or other object; nonconsensual intentional touching, either directly or through the clothing, of the genitalia, anus, groin, breast, inner thigh, or buttocks; or nonconsensual non-contact acts of a sexual nature such as voyeurism and verbal or behavioral sexual harassment. All the above acts also qualify as sexual violence if they are committed against someone who is unable to consent or refuse…
Displaced women and girls are vulnerable to a range of sexual violence including forced sex/rape, sexual abuse by an intimate partner, child sexual abuse, coerced sex, and sex trafficking in conflict and humanitarian settings.8 Many studies have focused on the issue of rape as a weapon of war, leading to assumptions that armed actors and military personnel are the main perpetrators of sexual violence.9 Other perpetrators, however, may also include family members, NGO and humanitarian workers, trusted individuals, or strangers who take advantage of heightened vulnerability.10 , 11 As a result, women and girls who experience sexual violence may experience a range of long lasting physical,12 , 13 reproductive,14 , 15 , 16 and mental health consequences of sexual violence.13
Prevention and response to sexual violence in humanitarian settings focuses on three main areas of medical and reproductive care, psychosocial support, and protection.5 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 To ensure quality and coverage of these services, however, donors and humanitarian organizations must make evidence-informed decisions with inputs related to level of need, intervention costs, and other priority needs of the displaced population.24 To this end, response efforts for sexual violence have been hampered by the lack of an adequate epidemiological understanding of the true estimates of sexual violence among refugees and IDPs. The available literature is scant and unreliable.25 The little research that is available has reported varying prevalence estimates, some with extremely high or low figures,26 leading to concerns about inappropriate estimations of both the true magnitude of sexual violence and the contexts in which sexual violence occurs.10 , 27 Differences in sampling techniques, definitions and recall periods of sexual violence, ethical considerations, or the challenging nature of conducting research in complex humanitarian emergencies may partially explain such differences in estimates.27
Though there have been systematic reviews of gender-based violence26 and sexual violence,9 to our knowledge, there has been no published meta-analysis of prevalence of sexual violence among displaced populations that has attempted to combine and contrast the estimates from across these different studies. Our objective is to estimate the prevalence of sexual violence among refugees and internally displaced persons in complex humanitarian emergencies.
Methods
Literature Search
The meta-analysis was conducted according to a pre-specified protocol available from the investigators. We conducted an initial search on MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL in November 2010 using an enhanced filter in consultation with an information specialist. Details of our search strategy and terms are presented in the Online Supplement (Appendix 1). The search was optimized for sensitivity and specificity through key articles identified by experts. At the time of manuscript preparation, we updated the search on February 2013 and also evaluated the bibliographies of included studies for relevant publications.
We restricted our searches to studies published in English and developed a search strategy for MEDLINE based on medical subject headings (MeSH) terms and text words of key articles that we identified a priori. Studies were not included or excluded on the basis of design but were required to report (or have references) on their study design and methodologies utilized. Inclusion criteria required the description of an evaluation of a screening tool, strategy, survey, or program to identify sexual violence among refugees and IDPs or those displaced by conflict in complex humanitarian settings. We excluded studies that did not provide prevalence of sexual violence for females, or that included only single case reports, anecdotes, and those that focused on displacement associated with natural disasters. We excluded studies that focused on female genital mutilation as a form of sexual violence. We excluded studies in which it was unclear as to whether the study population was migrant or refugees or if the results were not stratified on the basis of migrant or refugee/IDP status. Two reviewers worked independently and in duplicate, to review titles, abstracts, and full text versions of identified reports. A third reviewer met to discuss and to adjudicate differences.
Data Abstraction
Following the search, duplicate publications were removed. Preliminary screening included a review of all titles and abstracts of identified studies from our searches, excluding those that failed to meet selection criteria. The remaining articles underwent full-text evaluation for inclusion eligibility. Data were abstracted from identified studies that reported the outcome measures of female-targeted sexual violence, prevalence estimates, and other associations.
Study Characteristics
We extracted information related to the study characteristics, including country where the study was conducted, country of origin of study population, participant age range, proportion of female participants within the study sample, and total sample size of female participants. We also extracted information that described the study design, including design sampling method, whether the target sample size was reached according to the study authors, non-response percentage. Characteristics of the instrument used to assess sexual violence were also collected, including if pilot testing of questionnaires was performed prior to data collection, the type of instrument(s) used, and validation measures (i.e. reporting of internal consistency, sensitivity, and specificity).
Risk of bias
In order to determine the risk of bias of studies, we evaluated whether reliability had been assessed and whether authors evaluated construct validity of the screening instruments. We also determined whether sampling was convenience or probability-based. We did not conduct quantitative tests for publication bias but assessed this qualitatively when relevant.
Outcome Measure
Sexual violence outcomes included reported rape, molestation, sexual abuse, genital mutilation, gang rape, marital rape, sexual violence related to exploitation, and sexual harassment, as reported by the authors. Though recognizing the importance of GBV on the health and well-being of displaced persons, we focused the search on sexual violence among female refugees and IDPs, as opposed to GBV, given the broad definition,6 interpretation, and variable measurement of GBV in these settings.2
Data Synthesis
Statistical analysis was conducted using StatsDirect (version 2.7.9). Statistical heterogeneity was tested and prevalence proportions were pooled using a fixed-effect model if heterogeneity was limited; a random-effects model was used when there was a significant heterogeneity among the studies.28 Since heterogeneity was anticipated in these studies we considered the more conservative random-effects model as a more reliable estimate of the prevalence. To maintain similarity of sampling designs across the studies, we conducted sensitivity analyses to determine the robustness of the effect size when studies that had a defined sampling design were analyzed separately from those studies that reported non-probability based sampling methods. A conventional level of p<0.05 was utilized to assess significance. Our study was reported out according to the MOOSE Reporting instrument.29 The protocol is available on request from the corresponding author.
Results
Search results
After a review of 1175 citations, we selected 19 unique studies that reported on prevalence of sexual violence among female refugees and IDPs in the setting of complex humanitarian emergencies.3 , 4 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 The selection of studies included in our review is summarized in Figure 1.
Study characteristics
Characteristics of studies are summarized in Table 1. The 19 studies enrolled a total of 8398 participants. Participants of the studies were either refugees or IDPs from 14 different countries of origin that were affected by conflict and 14 different countries where the studies were conducted. The proportion of female participants ranged from 26.5% to 100%. The study sample sizes ranged from 34 to 991. There was significant variability of the age range; the widest reported age range was 11-70 years of age.
Table 1: Study characteristics.
Study Author (Year of study) | Country of Study | Country of Origin of refugee/displaced | Age Range (years) | Proportion of Female Participants (%) | No. of Females in Sample (N) | |
McKelvey (1995) | Philippines | Vietnam | 18.0 - 25.0 | 33.0 | 34 | |
Swiss (1998) | Liberia | Liberia | Not reported | 100.0 | 205 | |
Petersen (2000) | Thailand | Burma/Myanmar | 11.0 - 70.0 | 37.0 | 48 | |
Cardozo (2000) | Kosovo | Kosovo | Not reported | 62.3 | 825 | |
Amowitz (2002) | Sierra Leone | Sierra Leone | 14.0 - 80.0 | 100.0 | 991 | |
Kerimova (2003) | Azerbaijan | Azerbaijan | 33.5 * | 100.0 | 457 | |
Hynes (2004) | E. Timor | E. Timor | 18.0 - 49.0 | 100.0 | 287 | |
Avdibegović (2006) | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 43.0 * | 100.0 | 283 | |
Amone-P'Olak (2006) | Uganda | Uganda | 12.0 - 19.0 | 26.5 | 78 | |
Hammoury (2007) | Lebanon | Palestine | 28.0 * | 100.0 | 349 | |
Roberts (2008) | Uganda | Uganda | 35.3 * | 60.1 | 727 | |
Johnson (2008) | Liberia | Liberia | 40.2 - 42.4 | 52.8 | 880 | |
Usta (2008) | Lebanon | Lebanon | 15.0 - 72.0 | 100.0 | 310 | |
Hagan (2009) | Chad | Sudan | 37.1 * | 60.0 | 559 | |
Kinyanda (2010) | Uganda | Uganda | 24.0 * | 70.5 | 573 | |
Vinck (2010) | Central African Republic | Central African Republic | 36.4 * | 49.8 | 936 | |
Johnson (2010) | DRC | DRC | 38.2 - 42.0 | 59.4 | 586 | |
Betancourt (2011) | Sierra Leon | Sierra Leon | 16.2 * | 28.9 | 79 | |
Parmar (2012) | Eastern Cameroon | Central African Republic | 35.1 * | 100.0 | 191 | |
* Age range not available. Mean age reported instead |
Design and risk of bias results
Table 2 summarizes the study designs and the survey instruments used to assess sexual violence among female refugees and IDPs, as reported by the study authors. Among the nineteen selected studies, 11 studies utilized probability based random sampling methods3 , 4 , 30 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 46 and eight utilized non-probability based sampling methods.31 , 32 , 33 , 37 , 38 , 40 , 42 , 45 Definitions of sexual violence ranged from “improper sexual acts of any kind”45 to narrowly specified acts of sexual violence such as coerced penetration.4 , 34 , 36 Recall periods of sexual violence varied from 6 months41 to lifetime.4 , 31 , 34 , 39 Many of the studies (57.9%) did not develop the sample size with the appropriate effect size to measure the prevalence of sexual violence as the principal aim of the study. For example, several studies used a subsample of a larger study population to estimate the sexual violence prevalence.30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 Six studies reported that they had reached the targeted sample size.33 , 35 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 46 Another three studies reported that targeted sample size was not reached.4 , 34 , 36 Non-response rate was reported in nine studies.4 , 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 40 , 41 , 46 Five studies had reported that pilot testing of the survey instruments was carried out prior to data collection.4 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 46
Table 2: Reported Study Design and Study Instrument Used to Assess Sexual Violence.
Study Author (Year of study) | Study Design | SV Assessment Instrument | ||||
Probability vs. Non-Probability | Sample Size Adequacy Reached | Non- response | Pilot Testing | Type of Instrument Used | Sensitivity/ Specificity | |
McKelvey (1995) | Non-Probability | Not reported | 5.9% | Not reported | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Swiss (1998) | Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Petersen (2000) | Non-Probability | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Cardozo (2000) | Probability | Yes | Not reported | No | HTQ | Not reported |
Amowitz (2002) | Probability | No | 5.0% | Yes | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Kerimova (2003) | Non-Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Hynes (2004) | Probability | No | 26.0% | Yes | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Avdibegović (2006) | Non-Probability | Not reported | 0.0% | Not reported | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Amone-P'Olak (2006) | Probability | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Hammoury (2007) | Non-Probability | Yes | 0.6% | Yes | AAS | Not reported |
Roberts (2008) | Probability | Yes | Not reported | Not reported | HTQ | Not reported |
Johnson (2008) | Probability | Yes | 1.8% | Not reported | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Usta (2008) | Non-Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Hagan (2009) | Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Kinyanda (2010) | Non-Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Vinck (2010) | Probability | Yes | 5.0% | Yes | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Johnson (2010) | Probability | No | 1.1% | Yes | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Betancourt (2011) | Non-Probability | Not reported | Not reported | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
Parmar (2012) | Probability | Yes | 0.5% | No | Survey/Questionnaire | Not reported |
*HTQ- Harvard Trauma Questionnaire **AAS- Abuse Assessment Screen |
The survey instruments used to assess for sexual violence included the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ),47 , 48 , the Abuse Assessment Screen (AAS)49 and survey questionnaires (validation of survey questionnaires were not reported). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of the instruments used was only reported in the Roberts study43 that used HTQ. None of the studies reported sensitivity and specificity of the instrument used to assess for sexual violence. We could not rule out the presence of publication bias among the included studies.
Prevalence proportion for sexual violence
The estimated prevalence of sexual violence among the 19 selected studies3 , 4 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 was 21.4% (1521/8398; 95% CI, 14.9-28.7; I2=98.3), using the random effects statistical model (Figure 2). A sensitivity analysis was performed to compare the prevalence proportion of sexual violence of the studies that used probability based random sampling to the studies that used non-probability based sampling (Appendix 2). Compared to the primary analysis, the 11 studies that utilized probability based sampling methodologies noted an estimated 21.0% prevalence of sexual violence (961/6265; 95% CI, 13.2-30.1; I2=98.6%) using the random-effects model. The eight studies that used non-probability based sampling methodologies produced an estimated prevalence of sexual violence of 21.7% (560/2133; 95% CI, 11.5-34.2; I2=97.4%) using the random-effects model. Another sensitivity analysis was done to compare studies that focused on sexual violence as the primary objective compared to studies that was not dedicated to sexual violence as the primary objective (Appendix 2). Compared to the primary analysis, the 9 studies that focused on sexual violence as the primary objective yielded in an estimated 20.7% (911/4476; 95% CI, 13.0-29.6; I2= 97.8%) compared to the 10 studies with other primary objectives with an estimated 22.2% (610/3922; 95% CI, 11.8-34.7; I2= 98.6%) prevalence of sexual violence using random effects model.
Discussion
In the present meta-analysis of 19 studies, we found the prevalence of sexual violence among female refugees and internally displaced persons across 14 countries affected by conflict to be 21.4%. The quantification of sexual violence among female refugees and IDPs in complex humanitarian emergencies is challenging.
Sexual violence is often under-reported. The social stigma associated with rape, shame and fear of reprisal are significant deterrents for survivors of sexual violence to report their traumatic experiences. Compounding social stigma is an often inadequate justice system response that fails to arrest or prosecute perpetrators, a law enforcement system that often mistreats and further victimizes survivors of sexual violence, and a lack of capacity of service providers across multiple systems to receive and give adequate attention to the various and complex needs of women who have been raped.2 The cumulative effect is an inhospitable climate for survivors to come forth to disclose their experience and to seek help. The negative health impacts of the experience of sexual violence are significant and long-term and may, include serious physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections and HIV infections,16 , 50 fistulas and chronic pain,51 , 52 unwanted pregnancies,53 and a myriad of psychological health consequences including suicide.43 , 45 , 54 , 55
The body of research aimed at understanding the prevalence of sexual violence among refugees and displaced populations in conflicts is exponentially more difficult to elucidate given the context and the sensitive subject matter. Not only is there difficulty in reaching the affected populations, but investigators also employ varying definitions and research methodologies to estimate prevalence of sexual violence. Even when taking into account the methodological issues, our finding provides evidence of the need for concerted action to address sexual violence among refugees and displaced populations in conflict settings. The estimated lifetime prevalence of sexual violence against women in non-conflict settings ranges from 10%-50% depending on the country and who is identified as the perpetrator (e.g. intimate partner vs. stranger).13 , 56 In many countries where these estimates are collected in non-conflict setting, basic justice and law enforcement systems are in place. Situations of conflict and displacement may exacerbate existing gender based violence in families and communities and present new forms of violence (e.g. sexual slavery) against women and girls.53 Hence, the prevalence of sexual violence of 21.4% among refugees and IDPs still likely underestimates the true prevalence as many incidences of sexual violence in the setting of complex humanitarian emergencies, such as conflict, go unreported.
Similar to the recent systematic review by Stark and Ager,26 which focused on the prevalence of GBV in complex emergencies, the systematic review suggests a need for more uniform methods and common definitions in future research. Greater uniformity would yield deeper understanding of sexual violence among refugee and displaced populations. Adopting more consistent approaches, moreover, could potentially identify greater incidence of survivors of sexual violence.
In addition to the importance of determining prevalence, there is also a critical need to understand who the range of perpetrators may be, as well as the physical locations and settings in which sexual violence is likely to occur. More vigorous action is needed to prevent and to respond to sexual violence among refugees and displaced populations, identify methods to assist survivors, and hold perpetrators accountable. Potential steps include strengthening procedures for identifying survivors, such as the integration of routine GBV screening inquiry for women and girls in protection and health programs using a validated measure with trained providers; expanding prevention efforts using social norms perspectives, providing response services such as psychosocial services and livelihood programs for survivors;23 building competency, compassion and collaboration among protection officers, health and other service providers, and police; and providing resources and political will to investigate and prosecute perpetrators.
Limitations
Our analysis has limitations. Our search focused on peer-reviewed publications and searches of secondary sources. Our search may have exclude non-English articles and non peer-reviewed reports by humanitarian organizations. Although sexual violence is a global phenomenon, the search identified studies of refugees or displaced persons from predominantly African countries and thus limits the generalizability of our findings to other contexts. The results may be influenced by bias inherent in individual studies, particularly including social desirability bias that often accompanies self-reported responses to sensitive questions.57 Some studies evaluated violence and traumatic events that occurred in very distant past or did not report the time of the event, thus it is important to note that we cannot deduce estimates of temporality. Since there are no uniformly accepted measures of risk of bias assessments of cross-sectional studies, we developed our own assessment scale for this context. Additionally, some of the select 19 studies included in the final quantitative synthesis were not dedicated to assessing sexual violence but rather on other related topics in which sexual violence questions were included in the survey. We have performed a sensitivity analysis to compare the studies with the primary objective to measure sexual violence compared to studies with other primary objectives and we found no significant difference. The ideal study focused on assessing prevalence of sexual violence should include survey questions that are based on specific types and acts of sexual violence and delivered by trained interviewers in private confidential settings. As some of the studies were not dedicated studies focused on sexual violence and many of the studies did not detail how the questionnaires were administered, it is unclear how the final prevalence proportions reported were affected.
While this analysis focused on sexual violence among females, sexual violence among males exists and warrants future attention. Emerging reports have documented sexual and gender-based violence among male refugee and IDP populations 23 , 35 , 58 , 59 and response to prevent and address health and social outcomes among these men have been emphasized as a critical component for an inclusive and comprehensive response to sexual and gender-based violence among displaced populations.60 We acknowledge this as an important area of study and believe a separate study to assess the prevalence of sexual violence against men in displaced setting is warranted to give due justice and attention to the issue.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that approximately one in five refugees or displaced women in complex humanitarian settings experienced sexual violence. However, this is likely an underestimation of the true prevalence given the multiple existing barriers associated with disclosure. The long-term health and social consequences of sexual violence for women and their families necessitate strategies to improve identification of survivors of sexual violence and increase prevention and response interventions in these complex settings.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to the Center for Public Health and Human Rights for its ongoing support of this research. This project was funded as a gift of the U.S. Government (U.S Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration). The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Biography
I am a physician researcher. I serve as Director of the International Emergency and Public Health Fellowship at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and the Bloomberg School of Public Health. My work is focused on measuring and developing interventions to improve health outcomes for refugee and displaced persons in conflict and post-conflict settings. I have 7 years of research experience in conducting community based interventions in diverse populations across multiple settings globally. I am currently PI on four funded research studies (World Bank, Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugee and Migration (BPRM) and foundations). Through these research studies and others, I have successfully collaborated with investigators across multiple disciplines and institutions, mentored graduate and post-graduate students in diverse disciplines as well as partnered with community experts and organizations to conduct studies to improve health for individuals, families and communities.
Appendix 1
Search Terms
PUBMED/MEDLINE | EMBASE | CINAHL |
Questionnaires; Tool; Evaluation; Measurement; Diagnosis; Diagnostic tool; Assessment | Questionnaires; Evaluation; Measurement; Screening | |
Child Abuse; Dowry-related violence; Rape; Marital rape; Circumcision, female; Female genital mutilation; Female genital cutting; Non-spousal violence; Sexual violence related to exploitation; Sexual Harassment; Sexual harassment; Trafficking; Forced prostitution; Systematic rape; Sexual slavery | Partner violence; Sexual abuse; Rape; Child sexual abuse; Prostitution | Intimate partner violence; Sexual abuse; Rape; Child sexual abuse; |
Refugees; Emigrants; Immigrants; Transients; War | Refugees; War; Conflict |
Appendix 2
Sensitivity analysis for reported prevalence of sexual violence
Types of studies included in sensitivity analysis | Statistical Model | No. of Studies | No. Events, n/N | Prevalence Proportion, % (95% CI) |
Probability based random sampling | Random | 11 | 961/6265 | 21.0 (13.2-30.1) |
Non-probability based sampling | Random | 8 | 560/2133 | 21.7 (11.5-34.2) |
Studies with primary objective to measure sexual violence | Random | 9 | 911/4476 | 20.7 (13.0-29.6) |
Studies with other objective but reported on sexual violence | Random | 10 | 610/3922 | 22.2 (11.8-34.7) |
Appendix 3
MOOSE Checklist
PRISMA Checklist
Funding Statement
This project was funded as a gift of the U.S. Government (U.S Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Contributor Information
Alexander Vu, International Emergency Medicine and Public Health Fellowship Program, Department of Emergency Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Health Systems Program, Department of International Health, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Atif Adam, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Andrea Wirtz, Department of Emergency Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Kiemanh Pham, International Emergency Medicine and Public Health Fellowship Program, Department of Emergency Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Leonard Rubenstein, Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Nancy Glass, Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Chris Beyrer, Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Sonal Singh, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
References
- 1.UNHCR. UNHCR Global Appeal 2013 Update: Populations of Concern. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees;2013.
- 2.United nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Sexual and gender-based violence against refugees, returnees, and internally displaced persons. Geneva May 2003.
- 3.Hagan J, Rymond-Richmond W, Palloni A. Racial targeting of sexual violence in Darfur. Am J Public Health. Aug 2009;99(8):1386-1392. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 4.Amowitz LL, Reis C, Lyons KH, et al. Prevalence of war-related sexual violence and other human rights abuses among internally displaced persons in Sierra Leone. Jama. Jan 23-30 2002;287(4):513-521. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 5.Interagency Standing Committee. Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Settings. Geneva: The IASC Taskforce on Gender in Humanitarian Assistance,;2005.
- 6.United Nations General Assembly. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women. In: United Nations, ed. A/RES/48/104. Vol 48/104. Geneva1993.
- 7.Basile K, Saltzman L. Sexual violence surveillance: uniform definitions and recommended data elements. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control,;2002.
- 8.Ward J, Vann B. Gender-based violence in refugee settings. Lancet. Dec 2002;360 Suppl:s13-14. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 9.Hynes M, Lopes Cardozo B. Sexual violence against refugee women. Journal of women's health & gender-based medicine. Oct 2000;9(8):819-823. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 10.Human Security Research Group. Human Security Report 2012: Sexual Violence, Education, and War: Beyond the Mainstream Narrative. Vancouver: Simon Fraser Univ., ;2012.
- 11.Wirtz A, Glass N, Pham K, et al. Development of a screening tool to identify female survivors of gender-based violence in a humanitarian setting: qualitative evidence base from research among refugees in Ethiopia. Conflict and Health. 2013;(Under review). [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 12.Campbell J, Jones AS, Dienemann J, et al. Intimate partner violence and physical health consequences. Archives of internal medicine. May 27 2002;162(10):1157-1163. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 13.Ellsberg M, Jansen HA, Heise L, Watts CH, Garcia-Moreno C. Intimate partner violence and women's physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence: an observational study. Lancet. Apr 5 2008;371(9619):1165-1172. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 14.Draughton. Sexual assault injuries and increased risk of HIV transmission. Advanced emergency nursing journal. 2012;34(1):82-87. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 15.McLean I, Roberts SA, White C, Paul S. Female genital injuries resulting from consensual and non-consensual vaginal intercourse. Forensic science international. Jan 30 2011;204(1-3):27-33. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 16.M. Olynik MGP, M.E. Cannon, G. Lachapelle. Temporal Variability of GPS Error Sources and Their Effect on Relative Positioning Accuracy. Paper presented at: 2002 National Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation2002; San Diego, CA.
- 17.Talen E, Shah S. Neighborhood evaluation using GIS - An exploratory study. Environment and Behavior. Sep 2007;39(5):583-615
- 18.Hankins CA, Friedman SR, Zafar T, Strathdee SA. Transmission and prevention of HIV and sexually transmitted infections in war settings: implications for current and future armed conflicts. AIDS. Nov 22 2002;16(17):2245-2252. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 19.Hawkins SR, Clinton-Sherrod AM, Irvin N, Hart L, Russell SJ. Logic models as a tool for sexual violence prevention program development. Health Promot Pract. Jan 2009;10(1 Suppl):29S-37S. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 20.Pronyk PM, Hargreaves JR, Kim JC, et al. Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: a cluster randomised trial. The Lancet.368(9551):1973-1983. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 21.Glass N, Ramazani P, Tosha M, Mpanano M, Cinyabuguma M. A Congolese-US participatory action research partnership to rebuild the lives of rape survivors and their families in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Global public health. 2012;7(2):184-195. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 22.Kalichman SC, Simbayi LC, Cloete A, et al. Integrated gender-based violence and HIV Risk reduction intervention for South African men: results of a quasi-experimental field trial. Prev Sci. Sep 2009;10(3):260-269. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 23.Kohli A, Makambo MT, Ramazani P, et al. A Congolese community-based health program for survivors of sexual violence. Conflict and health. 2012;6(1):6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 24.Leaning J, Spiegel P, Crisp J. Public health equity in refugee situations. Conflict and Health. 2011;5(1):6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 25.Leiby M. Digging in the Archives: The Promise and Perils of Primary Documents. Politics & Society. March 1, 2009 2009;37(1):75-99.
- 26.Stark L, Ager A. A systematic review of prevalence studies of gender-based violence in complex emergencies. Trauma, violence & abuse. Jul 2011;12(3):127-134. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 27.Palermo T, Peterman A. Undercounting, overcounting and the longevity of flawed estimates: statistics on sexual violence in conflict. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. Dec 1 2011;89(12):924-925. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 28.Bradburn MJ, Deeks JJ, Berlin JA, Russell Localio A. Much ado about nothing: a comparison of the performance of meta-analytical methods with rare events. Stat Med. Jan 15 2007;26(1):53-77. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 29.Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PG. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 30.Amone-P'Olak K. Mental states of adolescents exposed to war in Uganda: finding appropriate methods of rehabilitation. Torture. 2006;16(2):93-107. [PubMed]
- 31.Avdibegovic E, Sinanovic O. Consequences of domestic violence on women's mental health in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croat Med J. Oct 2006;47(5):730-741. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 32.Betancourt TS, Borisova, II, de la Soudiere M, Williamson J. Sierra Leone's child soldiers: war exposures and mental health problems by gender. J Adolesc Health. Jul 2011;49(1):21-28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 33.Hammoury N, Khawaja M. Screening for domestic violence during pregnancy in an antenatal clinic in Lebanon. European Journal of Public Health. Dec 2007;17(6):605-606. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 34.Hynes M, Robertson K, Ward J, Crouse C. A determination of the prevalence of gender-based violence among conflict-affected populations in East Timor. Disasters. Sep 2004;28(3):294-321. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 35.Johnson K, Asher J, Rosborough S, et al. Association of combatant status and sexual violence with health and mental health outcomes in postconflict Liberia. Jama. Aug 13 2008;300(6):676-690. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 36.Johnson K, Scott J, Rughita B, et al. Association of sexual violence and human rights violations with physical and mental health in territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Jama. Aug 4 2010;304(5):553-562. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 37.Kerimova J, Posner SF, Brown YT, Hillis S, Meikle S, Duerr A. High prevalence of self-reported forced sexual intercourse among internally displaced women in Azerbaijan. Am J Public Health. Jul 2003;93(7):1067-1070. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 38.Kinyanda E, Musisi S, Biryabarema C, et al. War related sexual violence and it's medical and psychological consequences as seen in Kitgum, Northern Uganda: A cross-sectional study. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2010;10:28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 39.Lopes Cardozo B, Vergara A, Agani F, Gotway CA. Mental health, social functioning, and attitudes of Kosovar Albanians following the war in Kosovo. Jama. Aug 2 2000;284(5):569-577. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 40.McKelvey RS, Webb JA. A pilot study of abuse among Vietnamese Amerasians. Child Abuse Negl. May 1995;19(5):545-553. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 41.Parmar P, Agrawal P, Greenough PG, Goyal R, Kayden S. Sexual violence among host and refugee population in Djohong District, Eastern Cameroon. Glob Public Health. 2012;7(9):974-994. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 42.Petersen HD, Worm L, Olsen MZ, Ussing B, Hartling OJ. Human rights violations in Burma/Myanmar. A two year follow-up examination. Dan Med Bull. Nov 2000;47(5):359-363. [PubMed]
- 43.Roberts B, Ocaka KF, Browne J, Oyok T, Sondorp E. Factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression amongst internally displaced persons in northern Uganda. Bmc Psychiatry. May 19 2008;8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 44.Swiss S, Jennings PJ, Aryee GV, et al. Violence against women during the Liberian civil conflict. Jama. Feb 25 1998;279(8):625-629. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 45.Usta J, Farver JA, Zein L. Women, war, and violence: surviving the experience. J Womens Health (Larchmt). Jun 2008;17(5):793-804. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 46.Vinck P, Pham PN. Association of exposure to violence and potential traumatic events with self-reported physical and mental health status in the Central African Republic. JAMA. Aug 4 2010;304(5):544-552. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 47.Shoeb M, Weinstein H, Mollica R. The Harvard trauma questionnaire: adapting a cross-cultural instrument for measuring torture, trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraqi refugees. Int J Soc Psychiatry. Sep 2007;53(5):447-463. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 48.Mollica RF, Caspi-Yavin Y, Bollini P, Truong T, Tor S, Lavelle J. The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. Validating a cross-cultural instrument for measuring torture, trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder in Indochinese refugees. J Nerv Ment Dis. Feb 1992;180(2):111-116. [PubMed]
- 49.Laughon K, Renker P, Glass N, Parker B. Revision of the Abuse Assessment Screen to address nonlethal strangulation. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. Jul-Aug 2008;37(4):502-507. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 50.Campbell JC, Lucea MB, Stockman JK, Draughon JE. Forced Sex and HIV Risk in Violent Relationships. American journal of reproductive immunology. Oct 16 2012. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 51.Djuknic GM, Richton RE. Geolocation and assisted GPS. Computer. Feb 2001;34(2):123-125.
- 52.Longombe AO, Claude KM, Ruminjo J. Fistula and traumatic genital injury from sexual violence in a conflict setting in Eastern Congo: case studies. Reproductive health matters. May 2008;16(31):132-141. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 53.García-Moreno C, Jansen H, M. E, Heise L, Watts C. WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women : initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. World Health Organization: World Health Organization;2005.
- 54.Keller A, Lhewa D, Rosenfeld B, et al. Traumatic experiences and psychological distress in an urban refugee population seeking treatment services. J Nerv Ment Dis. Mar 2006;194(3):188-194. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 55.Wenzel T, Rushiti F, Aghani F, Diaconu G, Maxhuni B, Zitterl W. Suicidal ideation, post-traumatic stress and suicide statistics in Kosovo. An analysis five years after the war. Suicidal ideation in Kosovo. Torture. 2009;19(3):238-247. [PubMed]
- 56.Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey. Rockville: CDC,;2000.
- 57.Vu A, Tran N, Pham K, Ahmed S. Reliability of the Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale in Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, and Uganda. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2011;11:162. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 58.Christian M, Safari O, Ramazani P, Burnham G, Glass N. Sexual and gender based violence against men in the Democratic Republic of Congo: effects on survivors, their families and the community. Medicine, conflict, and survival. Oct-Dec 2011;27(4):227-246. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 59.UN OCHA. Discussion Paper 2: The nature, scope, and motivation for sexual violence against men and boys in armed conflict. Paper presented at: Use of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict: Identifying gaps in Research to Inform More Effective Interventions UN OCHA Research Meeting – 26 June 2008.
- 60.United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Working with men and boy survivors of sexual and gender-based violence in forced displacement. Geneva: UNHCR,;2012.