Table 2.
Summary of quantitative gender-related findings by outcome type.
| Outcome type | Number of studies | Gender difference | No gender difference | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Women > Men | Men > Women | ||||||
| n (%) | List of studies | n (%) | List of studies | n (%) | List of studies | ||
| Individual-level barriers | |||||||
| Financial | 21a | 11 (52%) | [12–14], [15]a, [16–22] | 5 (24%) | [23, 24], [15]a, [25, 26] | 6 (29%) | [27–32] |
| Physical | 9 | 1 (11%) | [14] | 8 (89%) | [26, 30–36] | ||
| Stigmab | 25 | 11 (44%) | [17, 18, 22, 37–44] | 2 (8%) | [45, 46] | 12 (48%) | [24–26, 35, 47–54] |
| Health literacy | 49 | 17 (35%) | [26, 34–36, 38, 41, 44, 50, 55–63] | 8 (16%) | [24, 28, 40, 42, 43, 64–66] | 24 (50%) | [14, 20, 22, 25, 30, 37, 45–47, 51–53, 67–78] |
| Sociodemographic | 6 | 4 (67%) | [17, 79–81] | 2 (33%) | [36, 71] | ||
| Provider-/system- level barriers | 19 | 8 (42%) | [17, 29, 37, 82–86] | 11 (58%) | [15, 28, 34, 35, 52, 73, 75, 87–90] | ||
| Combined individual-, provider-, and system-level barriers | 7 | 5 (72%) | [29, 91–94] | 1 (14%) | [95] | 1 (14%) | [18] |
| Individual-level delay | 58 | 13 (22%) | [14, 17, 21, 51, 73, 79, 96–102] | 7 (12%) | [37, 61, 103–107] | 38 (66%) | [16, 18–20, 28, 30–32, 36, 56, 71, 81, 108–133] |
| Provider-/system-level delay | 37 | 11 (30%) | [14, 19, 20, 36, 81, 85, 120, 128, 131, 134, 135] | 2 (5%) | [35, 101] | 24 (65%) | [16, 18, 32, 33, 79, 96, 99, 100, 104, 106, 107, 113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 132, 133, 136–139] |
| Combined individual-, provider-, and system-level delay | 25c | 9 (36%) | [140], [141]c, [27, 32, 36, 79, 100, 142, 143] | 1 (4%) | [141]c | 17 (68%) | [33, 69, 110], [141]c, [35, 86, 114, 117, 124, 129, 131–133, 144–147] |
aThis study is included in both gender difference categories as it reported that the direct costs of seeking care were higher for men and that the household costs of seeking care were higher for women.
bOne study was not included because the direction of association between gender and stigma could not be assessed [30].
cThis study is included in all three gender-related finding columns as it is a multicountry study and reported gender-related findings that differed from country to country.