Table 1.
The species of human pathogens with a proven VBNC state.
| Species | VBNC state inducing factor | Resuscitation condition | Resuscitation window | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acinetobacter calcoaceticus | Starvation | Lemke and Leff, 2006 | ||
| Aeromonas hydrophila | Starvation | Temperature upshift | Rahman et al., 2001; Maalej et al., 2004 | |
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens | Starvation, chemicals (copper) | Byrd et al., 1991; Alexander et al., 1999 | ||
| Arcobacter butzleri | Starvation | Rich medium, NOT temperature upshift | 270 days | Fera et al., 2008 |
| Bacillus cereus | Pulsed electric field | Rowan, 2004 | ||
| Burkholderia cepacia | Starvation | Lemke and Leff, 2006 | ||
| Burkholderia pseudomallei | Low pH, high temperature, osmotic pressure | Reviewed by Inglis and Sagripanti, 2006 | ||
| Campylobacter coli | Starvation, low pH, low temperature | Embryonated chicken eggs, NOT rich medium | Thomas et al., 2002; Chaveerach et al., 2003 | |
| Campylobacter jejuni | Starvation, low pH, low temperature | Rich medium, rich medium with gas mixture, mouse intestine, embryonated chicken eggs | 15 days | Bovill and Mackey, 1997; Thomas et al., 2002; Chaveerach et al., 2003; Cools et al., 2003; Baffone et al., 2006; Cook and Bolster, 2007 |
| Campylobacter lari | Starvation, low temperature | Thomas et al., 2002 | ||
| Citrobacter freundii | Starvation, high temperature | Rich medium with/ without enterobacterial autoinducer | 11 years | Reissbrodt et al., 2002; Dhiaf et al., 2008 |
| Cytophaga allerginae | Aerosolization | Heidelberg et al., 1997 | ||
| Edwardsiella tarda | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium with temperature upshift, embryonated chicken eggs | Du et al., 2007 | |
| Enterobacter aerogenes | Starvation | Byrd et al., 1991 | ||
| Enterobacter agglomerans | High temperature | Rich medium with enterobacterial autoinducer | Reissbrodt et al., 2002 | |
| Enterobacter cloacae | Oliver, 2010 | |||
| Enterococcus faecalis (Streptococcus faecalis) | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium with temperature upshift, embryonated chick eggs, NOT agar with sodium pyruvate/ beef liver catalase/ superoxide dismutase | 60 days | Byrd et al., 1991; Lleò et al., 1998, 2001 |
| Enterococcus faecium | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium, NOT agar with sodium pyruvate/beef liver catalase/ superoxide dismutase | 7 days | Lleò et al., 2001 |
| Enterococcus hirae | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium, NOT agar with sodium pyruvate/ beef liver catalase/ superoxide dismutase | 60 days | Lleò et al., 2001 |
| Escherichia coli | Starvation, light, oxidative stress, high temperature, chemicals (chlorination) | Rich medium with enterobacterial autoinducer, minimal medium with amino acids, supernatant of active growing culture, temperature upshift | Gourmelon et al., 1994; Reissbrodt et al., 2002; Oliver et al., 2005; Cook and Bolster, 2007; Asakura et al., 2008 | |
| Francisella tularensis | Oliver, 2010 | |||
| Haemophilus influenzae | Ehrlich et al., 2002 | |||
| Helicobacter pylori | Starvation | NOT heat shock, NOT agar with catalase | Adams et al., 2003 | |
| Klebsiella aerogenes | Oliver, 2010 | |||
| Klebsiella planticola | Aerosolization | Heidelberg et al., 1997 | ||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae | Starvation | Byrd et al., 1991 | ||
| Legionella pneumophila | Starvation, chemicals (disinfectants NaOCl and NH2Cl), Hartmannella vermiformis supernatant | Amoebae | Steinert et al., 1997; García et al., 2007; Alleron et al., 2008; Buse et al., 2013 | |
| Listeria monocytogenes | Starvation, low pH, low temperature, low salinity, chemicals (food preservatives), light, pulsed electric field | NOT rich medium with/ without sodium pyvurate | Besnard et al., 2002; Rowan, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2009; Lindbäck et al., 2010 | |
| Micrococcus luteus | Starvation | Rich medium, supernatant of active growing culture | 6 months | Mukamolova et al., 1998b |
| Micrococcus varians (Kocuria varians) | Oliver, 2005 | |||
| Mycobacterium smegmatis | Starvation, oxygen limitation, altered temperature | Rich medium, supernatant of active growing culture, Rpf | Kuznetsov et al., 2004; Shleeva et al., 2004 | |
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis | Starvation, oxygen limitation | Rich medium with catalase | 3.5 months | Downing et al., 2005 |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Starvation, low temperature, chemicals (copper) | Temperature upshift, rich medium with copper chelator | Leung et al., 1995; Dwidjosiswojo et al., 2011 | |
| Pseudomonas putida | Starvation | Lemke and Leff, 2006 | ||
| Salmonella enteritidis | Starvation | Rich medium | <21 days | Roszak et al., 1984 |
| Salmonella oranienburg | Starvation, salinity | Rich medium with Rpfs, supernatant from active growing culture | Panutdaporn et al., 2006 | |
| Salmonella typhi | Starvation | Cho and Kim, 1999 | ||
| Salmonella typhimurium | Starvation, low temperature, light, chemical (chlorination) | Rich medium with enterobacterial autoinducer, heat shock, NOT agar with catalase/ temperature upshift | Caro et al., 1999; Reissbrodt et al., 2002; Gupte et al., 2003; Oliver et al., 2005 | |
| Serratia marcescens | Aerosolization | Heidelberg et al., 1997 | ||
| Shigella dysenteriae | Oliver, 1995 | |||
| Shigella flexneri | Oliver, 1995 | |||
| Shigella sonnei | Oliver, 1995 | |||
| Staphylococcus aureus | Zandri et al., 2012 | |||
| Staphylococcus epidermidis | Zandri et al., 2012 | |||
| Vibrio alginolyticus | Du et al., 2007 | |||
| Vibrio cholera | Starvation, low temperature | Human intestine, eukaryotic cell lines, rabbit intestine | 110 days | Colwell et al., 1985, 1996; Senoh et al., 2010 |
| Vibrio fluvialis | Starvation | Rich medium | 6 years | Amel et al., 2008 |
| Vibrio mimicus | Oliver, 1995 | |||
| Vibrio parahaemolyticus | Starvation, low temperature, low salinity | Temperature upshift | 2 weeks | Bates and Oliver, 2004; Wong and Wang, 2004; Wong et al., 2004 |
| Vibrio vulnificus (type 1 & 2) | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium, temperature upshift, mice, clams | 3 days | Nilsson et al., 1991; Oliver and Bockian, 1995; Oliver et al., 1995; Biosca et al., 1996; Wong and Liu, 2008 |
| Yersinia pestis | Starvation, low temperature | Rich medium | Pawlowski et al., 2011 |
The inducing factors, resuscitating factors, as well as the longest resuscitation window reported are shown.