Table 2.
Time scales relevant to pitch stability and control for hovering insects, hummingbirds and flapping-wing robots.
| TI (ms) | TF/TI | TP/TI | TINST/TI | TRXN/TI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| honeybee, Apis mellifera | 26 | 8.8 | 20 | 5.3 | 0.96 |
| bumblebee, Bombus terrestris | 27 | 11 | 23 | 5.5 | 0.92 |
| bumblebee, Bombus hortorum | 31 | 7.7 | 17 | 5.2 | 0.87 |
| bumblebee, Bombus lucorum | 31 | 7.7 | 15 | 5.3 | 0.88 |
| hover fly, Episyrphus balteatus | 29 | 3.8 | 14 | 4.7 | 0.78 |
| drone fly, Eristaltis tenax | 40 | 6.3 | 14 | 5.1 | 0.85 |
| hawkmoth, Manduca sexta male | 45 | 7.3 | 7.8 | 5.8 | 0.85 |
| hawkmoth, Manduca sexta female | 44 | 8.4 | 6.6 | 6.3 | 0.86 |
| fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster | 14 | 5.1 | 6.1 | 5.8 | 0.93 |
| fruit fly with fibres | 14 | 4.0 | 0.63 | — | — |
| parasitic wasp, Encarsia formosa | 6 | 3.7 | 3.3 | 7.2 | 1.2 |
| orchid bee, Euglossa dissimula | 25 | 7.6 | 14 | 5.3 | 0.89 |
| orchid bee, Euglossa imperialis | 25 | 8.4 | 16 | 5.4 | 0.89 |
| orchid bee, Eulaema meriana | 37 | 5.9 | 11 | 5.2 | 0.87 |
| march fly, Bibio marci female | 34 | 4.1 | 7.4 | 5.3 | 0.88 |
| march fly, Bibio marci male | 34 | 4.4 | 8.5 | 5.2 | 0.86 |
| conopid fly, Conops strigatus | 31 | 4.8 | 9.7 | 5.1 | 0.85 |
| bluebottle fly, Calliphora vicina | 20 | 8.0 | 10 | 5.7 | 0.94 |
| black fly, Simulium Latreille | 14 | 5.2 | 5.4 | 6.0 | 1.0 |
| crane fly, Tipula paludosa | 27 | 5.2 | 4.1 | 6.8 | 1.1 |
| mosquito, Aedes aegypti | 24 | 3.1 | 1.8 | 14.6 | 2.4 |
| woolly aphid, Eriosomatina | 15 | 0.95 | 0.19 | — | — |
| blue-throated hummingbird, Lampornis clemenciae | 93 | 15 | 19 | 6.1 | 1.0 |
| magnificient hummingbird, Eugenes fulgens | 120 | 11 | 23 | 5.5 | 0.92 |
| black-chinned hummingbird, Archilochus alexandri | 75 | 18 | 55 | 6.0 | 1.0 |
| Rufous hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus | 89 | 18 | 26 | 6.3 | 1.0 |
| Mentor SF-2.5 | 110 | 11 | 18 | 5.7 | 0.94 |
| DelFly II | 140 | 1.0 | 0.71 | — | — |
| Cornell micro-air vehicle I | 330 | 0.52 | 0.20 | — | — |
| Cornell micro-air vehicle II | 72 | 0.93 | 0.18 | — | — |
| Harvard micro-robotic insect | 20 | 8.0 | 11 | 5.6 | 0.93 |