Table 2.
Cox Proportional Hazard Ratios (95% Confidence Intervals) for the Relationships Among Depression, Socioeconomic Status, Health Conditions, Health Behaviors, and the Risk of Nonsuicide Death, U.S. Adults 50 Years and Older, 1999–2006
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Major depression | 2.60 (2.11–3.21)*** | 2.21 (1.77–2.75)*** | 1.93 (1.53–2.44)*** | 1.43 (1.13–1.82)** |
| Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||
| Year of birth | 1.01 (0.98–1.03) | 1.03 (1.00–1.05)* | 1.03 (1.01–1.06)* | 1.06 (1.03–1.08)*** |
| Race/ethnicity (N.H. white) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic black | 1.27 (1.05–1.52)* | 1.12 (0.92–1.35) | 1.08 (0.89–1.30) | 1.11 (0.89–1.38) |
| Hispanic | 0.82 (0.62–1.08) | 0.66 (0.49–0.89)** | 0.71 (0.52–0.97)* | 0.79 (0.58–1.08) |
| Female (=1) | 0.67 (0.61–0.74)*** | 0.56 (0.51–0.63)*** | 0.60 (0.54–0.68)*** | 0.56 (0.49–0.63)*** |
| Foreign born (=1) | 0.74 (0.59–0.92)** | 0.67 (0.53–0.84)*** | 0.70 (0.55–0.89)** | 0.66 (0.52–0.84)*** |
| Socioeconomic status | ||||
| Marital status (currently married) | ||||
| Previously married | 1.35 (1.21–1.52)*** | 1.30 (1.16–1.47)*** | 1.32 (1.17–1.49)*** | |
| Never married | 1.09 (0.86–1.39) | 1.10 (0.86–1.41) | 1.09 (0.84–1.41) | |
| Years of education | 0.96 (0.94–0.97)*** | 0.98 (0.96–0.99)** | 0.98 (0.96–0.99)** | |
| Employment status (employed) | ||||
| Unemployed | 2.07 (0.94–4.56)† | 1.66 (0.73–3.77) | 2.20 (0.95–5.06)† | |
| Not in labor force | 1.93 (1.61–2.31)*** | 1.86 (1.56–2.23)*** | 1.62 (1.35–1.96)*** | |
| Logged family income | 0.93 (0.86–1.00)* | 0.96 (0.89–1.04) | 0.95 (0.88–1.03) | |
| Health behaviors | ||||
| Alcohol use (current drinker) | ||||
| Abstainer | 1.40 (1.21–1.62)*** | 1.34 (1.15–1.56)*** | ||
| Former drinker | 1.55 (1.36–1.77)*** | 1.36 (1.18–1.57)*** | ||
| Current heavy drinker | 1.02 (0.77–1.35) | 1.04 (0.77–1.42) | ||
| Physical activity (no regular activity) | ||||
| Regular physical activity | 0.65 (0.55–0.77)*** | 0.74 (0.62– 0.89)** | ||
| Regular physical activity and strengthening | 0.53 (0.39–0.71)*** | 0.54 (0.40–0.73)*** | ||
| Smoking status (never smoker) | ||||
| Former smoker | 1.49 (1.31–1.68)*** | 1.39 (1.22–1.59)*** | ||
| Current light smoker | 1.66 (1.33–2.08)*** | 1.52 (1.21–1.92)*** | ||
| Current moderate smoker | 2.17 (1.77–2.66)*** | 2.00 (1.60–2.49)*** | ||
| Current heavy smoker | 3.17 (2.37–4.25)*** | 2.91 (2.17–3.90)*** | ||
| Health status | ||||
| BMI (kg/m2; normal weight 18.5–24.9) | ||||
| Underweight (<18.5) | 3.15 (2.41–4.11)*** | |||
| Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 0.81 (0.72–0.92)*** | |||
| Obese (≥30.0) | 0.78 (0.67–0.91)** | |||
| Functional limitation | 1.56 (1.36–1.77)*** | |||
| Self-reported chronic conditions | ||||
| Heart disease (=1) | 1.26 (1.13–1.42)*** | |||
| Cancer (=1) | 1.55 (1.35–1.77)*** | |||
| Stroke (=1) | 1.32 (1.11–1.58)** | |||
| Diabetes (=1) | 1.74 (1.50–2.02)*** | |||
| Observations | 11,368 | 10,530 | 10,483 | 9,989 |
| − Log likelihood | −3,381.70 | −2,901.83 | −2,800.12 | −2,488.61 |
| Akaike information criterion | 6,775.39 | 5,827.66 | 5,642.24 | 5,035.23 |
| Bayesian information criterion | 6,819.42 | 5,914.81 | 5,794.64 | 5,244.29 |
Notes. Robust 95% confidence intervals in parentheses. Adjusted Wald tests indicate significant model improvement for each subsequent model. BMI = body mass index.
Statistically significant coefficients are indicated as follows: † p ≤ .10. *p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.