Table 1.
Characteristics of diabetes cases and controls in the NHS and NHSII at urinary sample collection.
| Characteristica | NHS | NHSII | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cases (n = 394) | Controls (n = 393) | p-Valueb | Cases (n = 577) | Controls (n = 577) | p-Valueb | |
| Age at urine sample collection (years)c | 65.6 ± 6.4 | 65.6 ± 6.4 | 0.98 | 45.6 ± 4.4 | 45.6 ± 4.4 | 0.91 |
| BMI (kg/m2)d | 29.7 ± 5.8 | 26.0 ± 4.5 | < 0.0001 | 33.5 ± 7.0 | 25.7 ± 5.5 | < 0.0001 |
| BMI categories (%) | < 0.0001 | < 0.0001 | ||||
| < 25.0 | 21.3 | 47.8 | 9.7 | 54.6 | ||
| 25.0–27.4 | 16.5 | 20.1 | 11.4 | 16.1 | ||
| 27.5–29.9 | 18.5 | 12.7 | 11.3 | 8.8 | ||
| 30.0–32.4 | 14.7 | 9.4 | 14.6 | 5.9 | ||
| ≥ 32.5 | 27.4 | 9.4 | 49.1 | 10.6 | ||
| Missing | 1.5 | 0.5 | 4.0 | 4.0 | ||
| Physical activity (MET-hr/week) | 16.8 ± 22.8 | 19.0 ± 20.9 | 0.15 | 17.0 ± 27.3 | 19.5 ± 22.9 | 0.09 |
| Smoking status (%) | 0.58 | 0.02 | ||||
| Current smoker | 6.6 | 5.9 | 12.7 | 8.2 | ||
| Former smoker | 47.5 | 44.5 | 22.9 | 27.4 | ||
| Never smoked | 45.9 | 49.6 | 64.5 | 64.5 | ||
| Alcohol intake (%) | 0.01 | 0.0002 | ||||
| Abstainer | 25.1 | 20.6 | 42.5 | 32.6 | ||
| < 5.0 g/day | 50.0 | 45.8 | 46.3 | 48.4 | ||
| 5.0–14.9 g/day | 15.2 | 24.4 | 8.5 | 14.7 | ||
| ≥ 15.0 g/day | 9.6 | 9.2 | 2.8 | 4.3 | ||
| Hypertension (%) | 61.9 | 40.0 | < 0.0001 | 27.6 | 12.5 | < 0.0001 |
| Hypercholesterolemia (%) | 73.4 | 59.5 | < 0.0001 | 46.5 | 23.2 | < 0.0001 |
| White (%)c | 97.7 | 98.2 | 0.62 | 95.7 | 96.5 | 0.45 |
| Family history of diabetes (%) | 38.8 | 27.5 | 0.0007 | 32.6 | 16.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Fasting ≥ 8 hr at blood sample collection (%)c | 93.2 | 94.2 | 0.57 | 73.8 | 75.9 | 0.42 |
| Menopause (%)c | 100.0 | 99.2 | 0.25 | 34.7 | 34.7 | > 0.99 |
| Postmenopausal hormone use (%)c,e | 59.1 | 62.1 | 0.40 | 49.0 | 49.0 | > 0.99 |
| Use of oral contraceptive (%)f | — | 0.05 | ||||
| Current user | — | — | 2.3 | 4.9 | ||
| Past user | — | — | 84.2 | 83.4 | ||
| Never used | — | — | 13.5 | 11.8 | ||
| Diet | ||||||
| Total energy (kcal/day) | 1778.9 ± 415.4 | 1761.2 ± 402.0 | 0.54 | 1861.1 ± 513.2 | 1784.0 ± 485.7 | 0.009 |
| Trans fats (% of energy) | 1.63 ± 0.40 | 1.58 ± 0.40 | 0.07 | 1.61 ± 0.52 | 1.51 ± 0.49 | 0.0006 |
| Polyunsaturated: saturated fat ratio | 0.56 ± 0.12 | 0.58 ± 0.14 | 0.05 | 0.50 ± 0.12 | 0.52 ± 0.14 | 0.008 |
| Coffee (cups/day) | 2.0 ± 1.4 | 2.2 ± 1.5 | 0.09 | 1.3 ± 1.7 | 1.7 ± 1.7 | 0.0003 |
| Whole grains (g/day) | 18.6 ± 10.3 | 20.7 ± 10.0 | 0.004 | 19.6 ± 12.8 | 22.3 ± 14.4 | 0.0008 |
| Fruits (servings/day) | 2.2 ± 1 | 2.3 ± 1.0 | 0.07 | 1.8 ± 1.1 | 1.9 ± 1.3 | 0.01 |
| Vegetables (servings/day) | 3.2 ± 1.3 | 3.3 ± 1.4 | 0.24 | 2.8 ± 1.6 | 2.8 ± 1.8 | 0.85 |
| Red meat (servings/day) | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.8 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 0.9 ± 0.6 | 0.8 ± 0.6 | < 0.0001 |
| Fish (servings/day) | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.94 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.29 |
| Soft drinks (servings/day) | 0.8 ± 0.8 | 0.6 ± 0.7 | 0.0004 | 1.7 ± 1.5 | 1.2 ± 1.2 | < 0.0001 |
| AHEI scoreg | 50.0 ± 8.2 | 52.7 ± 8.6 | < 0.0001 | 46.7 ± 9.2 | 49.5 ± 9.8 | < 0.0001 |
| Urinary creatinine (mg/dL)h | 66.6 (45.2, 101.6) | 60.9 (43.0, 90.9) | 0.05 | 87.8 (63.9, 127.1) | 87.8 (61.5, 119.6) | 0.25 |
| Urinary BPA (μg/L)h | 1.5 (1.0, 2.8) | 1.5 (1.0, 2.7) | 0.98 | 2.3 (1.4, 3.8) | 2.0 (1.3, 3.5) | 0.19 |
| Urinary phthalate metabolites (nmol/L)h | ||||||
| DEHPi | 277.6 (154.4, 545.8) | 229.7 (142.8, 463.7) | 0.05 | 324.7 (201.4, 586.3) | 301.7 (170.8, 522.3) | 0.02 |
| Butyl phthalatesi | 107.7 (70.8, 209.8) | 114.8 (67.8, 212.0) | 0.88 | 249.2 (151, 421.0) | 248.5 (150.6, 378.4) | 0.44 |
| Total phthalatesi | 1055.1 (616.1, 1885.3) | 1049.6 (571.8, 2010.3) | 0.87 | 1495.6 (900.8, 2876.6) | 1479.5 (858.5, 2684.2) | 0.32 |
| aPlus-minus values are mean ± SD. Percentages are based on non-missing data. bp-Value estimates are based on Student’s t-test for variables expressed as mean ± SD, Wilcoxon rank–sum test for variables expressed as median (IQR), or Pearson χ2 test for variables expressed as percentages. cMenopausal status and hormone use were matching factors in the NHSII only. dBMI was missing for 8 participants in the NHS and 46 participants in the NHSII. eAmong menopausal women only. fAmong premenopausal women only. gMeasuring the overall diet quality by summarizing higher intakes of vegetables, fruits, nuts, soy, and cereal fiber, higher ratios of chicken plus fish to red meat and polyunsaturated to saturated fat, lower intake of trans fats, and multivitamin use of ≥ 5 years. hValues are median (25th percentile, 75th percentile). iDEHP metabolites included MEHP, MEHHP, MEOHP, and MECPP; butyl phthalate metabolites, MBP and MiBP; total phthalate metabolites, MEP, MEHP, MEHHP, MECPP, MEOHP, MBzP, MBP, and MiBP. | ||||||