Skip to main content
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jan 2.
Published in final edited form as: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014 Jan 2;62(1):25–39. doi: 10.1111/jgs.12611

Table 2.

Summary of Tai Chi studies including participants with cognitive impairment.

Study
and
Location		 Study
Design		 Study
Population		 Intervention
Groups		 Frequency and
Duration
of Intervention		 Cognitive
Outcomes
Measured		 Results related to Cognitive
Measures**
Cheng et al (2012)32 Hong Kong, China RCT (n=110) Dementia institutionalized Mean MMSE 19 Mean age 82y

  • TC (n=39)

  • Mahjong (n=36)

  • Control: Simple handicrafts (n=35)

  • All groups: 3 (60min) sessions per wk for 12 wks

  • Global Cognition: MMSE

  • Executive Function: DS F/B

  • Language: CVFT

  • Learning Memory: DR

 At 9 mo:

  • TC improved MMSE (+3.7 compared to control (95% CI: 1.4–6.0; d=0.40))

  • Only intervention groups improved on MMSE (Mahjong +1.5 points (95% CI: −0.0 to 3.0), TC +1.3 points (95% CI: −0.0 to 2.5), control group −2.9 points (95% CI: −4.2 to −1.7))

  • TC improved DS-F compared to control (difference between means: 0.98;95% CI: 0.12–1.84; d=0.25)

  • No changes in DR and DSB

  • Main effect of Mahjong (overall mean: 13.4 ± 12.4; 95% CI: 9.3–17.5) over control (overall mean: 9.9 ± 12.7; 95% CI: 5.7–14.2) in CVFT
Tsai et al (2013)37 Arkansas, USA RCT (n=55) Cognitive impairment, community dwelling w/knee osteoarthritis Mean MMSE 25 Mean age 79y

  • TC (n=28)

  • Control: health education and social activities (n=27)

  • Both groups: 3 (20–40min) sessions per wk for 20 wks

  • Global Cognition: MMSE

 At 21 wks:

  • TC improved MMSE (+1.33 at wk 21 (P=0.096))
Lam et al (2012)39 Hong Kong, China RCT (n=389) Cognitive impairment, community dwelling w/amnestic MCI Mean MMSE 25 Mean age 78y

  • TC (n=171)

  • Control: exercise, stretching and toning (n=218)
  • Both groups:
    • -
      Initial 1 instructor-led session per week for 8–12 wks
    • -
      After 12 wks, home video, goal 30min/day, ≥3x/wk; monthly refresher session
    • -
      Total 1 year

  • Clinical progression: incident dementia

  • Global Function: CDR-SB

  • Global Cognition: MMSE, ADAS-cog

  • Executive Function: DS, VSF/B, TMT

  • Language: CVFT

  • Learning Memory: DR

  • Other: NPI, CSDD

 At 1 yr:

  • Fewer progressed to dementia in TC vs. control: 4 (4.3%) vs. 28 (16.6%)

  • Trend for lower risk of developing dementia at 1 year with TC (intention to treat analyses: odds ratio 0.28, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.05–0.92, p=.06; completer-only analyses; odds ratio 0.21, 95% CI 0.05–0.92, p=.04)

  • TC had better preservation of CDR-SB (p=0.04)

  • TC improved CSDD (completers only, p=0.02) and DR (completers only, p=0.05)

  • No difference in MMSE, DR, CVFT, ADAS-Cog, VSB, NPI
Wang et al (2010)38 Akitsu-Kounoike, Japan RCT (n=34) Cognitive impairment w/cerebral vascular disease Mean MMSE 26 Mean age 77y

  • TC (n=17)

  • Control: Rehabilitation (n=17)

  • TC: 1 (50min) session per wk for 12 wks

  • Rehabilitation: 1 (80 min) session, non-resistance training (20min) and resistance training (60min), per wk for 12 wks

  • Other: P300 amplitude and latency

 At 12 wks:

  • No significant differences between TC and rehabilitation in P300 amplitudes and latencies

  • P300 latencies in TC showed more trend toward decreasing than those of control
Dechamps et al (2010)33 Bordeaux, France RCT (n=160) Dementia institutionalized Mean MMSE 15 Mean age 82y

  • TC (n=51)

  • Cognition-Action (n=49)

  • Control: Usual care (n=60)

  • TC: 4 (30min) sessions per wk for 24 wks

  • Cognition-Action: 2 (30–40min) sessions of light-intensity exercises per wk for 24 wks

  • Global Function: ADL

  • Global Cognition: MMSE

  • Other: NPI

 At 1 yr:

  • Significant difference in ADL scores across groups, with no change in TC and Cognition Action and decline in control, p=0.007)

  • No difference in NPI between TC group and control; no difference in NPI between TC and Cognition Action

  • No significant changes in MMSE
Dechamps et al (2009)34 Bordeaux, France RCT (n=52) Dementia institutionalized Mean MMSE 20 Mean age 81y

  • TC (n=26)

  • Control: Cognition-Action (n=26)

  • TC: 4 (30min) sessions per wk for 24 wks

  • Cognition-Action: 2 (30–40min) sessions of light intensity exercises (stepping, stretching, deep abdominal breathing) per wk for 24 weeks

  • Global Cognition: MMSE

  • Other: MCS of SF-12

 At 24 wks:

  • No differences in MCS of SF-12

  • TC and Cognition Action showed within-group improvements in MCS of SF-12 but no difference between groups

  • No significant changes in MMSE
Burgener et al (2008)9 Illinois, USA RCT (n=43) Dementia Mean MMSE 24 Mean age 77y

  • TC plus cognitive behavioral therapy plus support group (n=24)

  • Control: Wait-list, plus attention control classes (n=19)

  • TC, 1 hour classes 3x/wk for 20 wks, plus 90 min bi-wkly classes of cognitive behavioral therapy or support group

  • Control: Unspecified attention control education classes × 20 wks

 Global Function: MMSE At 20wks:

  • TC improved MMSE compared to control group (+0.4 vs. −0.5, p=.05)
Chang et al (2011)31 Arkansas, USA PNCS (n=11) Dementia Mean MMSE 23 Mean age 85y

  • TC (n=11)

  • 2 (20–40min) sessions per wk for 15 wks

  • Global Cognition: MMSE

  • Executive Function: DS, DSC, Stroop color word

  • Learning Memory: Hopkins Verbal Learning DR

 At 15 wks:

  • No significant pre-post differences on MMSE, DSC, DS, Stroop Color and Word, Hopkins Verbal Learning immediate and delayed recall

  • Stratified analysis by TC dose found improvements in MMSE (p<0.05) and DSC (p<0.05) in those attending ≥ 24 sessions vs. ≤ 4 sessions
Lam et al (2009)36 Hong Kong, China CSS (n=782) Cognitive impairment Mean MMSE 26 Mean age 72y

  • Mind-body, e.g. TC, yoga (n=90)

  • Stretching (n=346)

  • Aerobic, e.g. swimming, jogging (n=117)

  • No exercise (n=229)

  • Self-reported regular exercise

  • Duration of practice, >5 years or <5 years

  • CDR = 0 (n=379), CDR = 0.5 (n=403)

  • Global Cognition: MMSE, ADASCog

  • Executive Function: DS-B, VS-B

  • Language: CVFT

  • Learning Memory: DR

  • Among those with regular exercise, lower prevalence of no cognitive impairment (CDR = 0) vs. MCI (CDR = 0.5)

  • Lowest proportion with MCI among mind-body group (p=0.003)

  • Subjects in aerobic and mind-body group practicing >5yrs had higher MMSE, 10-min DR, VS-B and CVFT (p < 0.05) compared to stretching group

  • Cognitive profiles between aerobic and mind-body groups not significantly different

Abbreviations used throughout table

**

Results reported are between groups unless otherwise noted

TC = Tai Chi

RCT = Randomized Controlled Trial

PNRCS = Prospective Non-Randomized Controlled Trial

PNCS = Prospective Non-Controlled Trial

CSS = Cross-Sectional Study

MMSE = Mini Mental Status Examination

(C) BNT = (Chinese) Boston Naming Test

(C) Mattis DRS – (Chinese) Dementia Rating Scale

ANT = Animal Naming Test

ADAS-Cog = Alzheimer’s disease Assessement Scale – Cognitive Subscale

ADL = Activities of Daily Living

AVLT = Auditory Verbal Learning Test

CDR –SB = Clinical Dementia Rating – Sum of Boxes

CDT = Clock Drawing Test

COWAT = Controlled Oral Word Association Test

CSDD = Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia

CTT (1/2) = Color Trails Test (part 1 and/or part 2)

CVFT = Category Verbal Fluency Test

CVLT = California Verbal Learning Test

DR = Delayed Recall

DSC = Digit Symbol Coding

DS-F/DS-B = Digit Span Forward/Digit Span Backward

Dseq-F/Des-B = Digit sequence Forward/Digit sequence Backward

HKLLT = Hong Kong List Learning Test

MASQ = Multiple Abilities Self-Report Questionnaire

MCS of SF-12 = Mental Component Summary of the SF-12

NPI = Neuropsychiatric Inventrory

RAVLT = Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test

RBMT-CV = Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test – Chinese Version

TMT A&B = Trail Making Test part A and part B

VS-F/B = Visual Span Forward/Backward