Table 1.
Characteristics of the Sample
| Total (N=145) |
ADHD (N=73) |
HC (N=72) |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % | N | % | N | % | N | χ2 | p | |
| Male gender | 67.6 | 98 | 76.7 | 56 | 58.3 | 42 | 5.59 | 0.018 |
| SES | ||||||||
| 5 (highest) | 37.2 | 54 | 41.1 | 30 | 33.3 | 24 | F.E. | 0.725 |
| 4 | 42.1 | 61 | 41.1 | 30 | 43.1 | 31 | ||
| 3 | 18.6 | 27 | 16.4 | 12 | 20.8 | 15 | ||
| 2 | 2.1 | 3 | 1.4 | 1 | 2.8 | 2 | ||
| 1 (lowest) | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | ||
| Race | ||||||||
| Caucasian | 89.7 | 130 | 90.4 | 66 | 88.9 | 64 | F.E. | 0.740 |
| African American | 7.6 | 11 | 8.2 | 6 | 6.9 | 5 | ||
| Asian | 1.4 | 2 | 1.4 | 1 | 1.4 | 1 | ||
| Other | 1.4 | 2 | 0.0 | 0 | 2.8 | 2 | ||
| Baseline living situation | ||||||||
| Both bio parents | 78.7 | 111 | 65.2 | 45 | 91.7 | 66 | F.E. | 0.001 |
| Both bio parents, joint custody | 2.1 | 3 | 4.3 | 3 | 0.0 | 0 | ||
| Bio mom, step-dad | 11.4 | 16 | 17.4 | 12 | 5.6 | 4 | ||
| Bio mom, significant other | 0.7 | 1 | 1.4 | 1 | 0.0 | 0 | ||
| Bio mom only | 7.1 | 10 | 11.6 | 8 | 2.8 | 2 | ||
| SUD during follow-up | 14.5 | 21 | 24.7 | 18 | 4.2 | 3 | 12.29 | <0.001 |
| ODD | 14.5 | 21 | 27.4 | 20 | 1.4 | 1 | 19.80 | <0.001 |
| Parental SUD | 34.4 | 44 | 40.6 | 26 | 28.1 | 18 | 2.22 | 0.137 |
| Maternal SUD | 7.0 | 9 | 4.7 | 3 | 9.4 | 6 | F.E. | 0.492 |
| Paternal SUD | 29.9 | 38 | 38.1 | 24 | 21.9 | 14 | 3.98 | 0.046 |
| Parental smoking | 33.6 | 43 | 34.4 | 22 | 32.8 | 21 | 0.04 | 0.852 |
| Maternal smoking | 17.2 | 22 | 15.6 | 10 | 18.8 | 12 | 0.22 | 0.639 |
| Paternal smoking | 24.4 | 31 | 27.0 | 17 | 21.9 | 14 | 0.45 | 0.503 |
| Parental ADHD | 24.2 | 31 | 39.1 | 25 | 9.4 | 6 | 15.37 | <0.001 |
| Maternal ADHD | 9.4 | 12 | 17.2 | 11 | 1.6 | 1 | 9.20 | 0.002 |
| Paternal ADHD | 17.3 | 22 | 27.0 | 17 | 7.8 | 5 | 8.15 | 0.004 |
| Parental ASPD | 4.7 | 6 | 7.8 | 5 | 1.6 | 1 | F.E. | 0.208 |
| Maternal ASPD | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | -- | -- |
| Paternal ASPD | 4.7 | 6 | 7.9 | 5 | 1.6 | 1 | F.E. | 0.115 |
| Parental MDD | 53.1 | 68 | 70.3 | 45 | 35.9 | 23 | 15.18 | <0.001 |
| Maternal MDD | 44.5 | 57 | 57.8 | 37 | 31.3 | 20 | 9.14 | 0.003 |
| Paternal MDD | 22.0 | 28 | 33.3 | 21 | 10.9 | 7 | 9.27 | 0.002 |
| Parental anxiety | 48.4 | 62 | 59.4 | 38 | 37.5 | 24 | 6.13 | 0.013 |
| Maternal anxiety | 33.6 | 43 | 48.4 | 31 | 18.8 | 12 | 12.64 | <0.001 |
| Paternal anxiety | 20.5 | 26 | 19.0 | 12 | 21.9 | 14 | 0.16 | 0.693 |
| Low parental warmth | 39.0 | 55 | 59.4 | 41 | 19.4 | 14 | 23.67 | <0.001 |
| Low maternal warmth | 17.0 | 24 | 27.5 | 19 | 6.9 | 5 | 10.58 | 0.001 |
| Low paternal warmth | 34.5 | 48 | 54.4 | 37 | 15.5 | 11 | 23.27 | <0.001 |
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | t | p | |
| Baseline age | 11.42 | 3.49 | 11.78 | 4.07 | 11.06 | 2.76 | 1.24 | 0.216 |
| Final assessment age | 21.04 | 2.75 | 20.93 | 2.76 | 21.15 | 2.76 | 0.49 | 0.625 |
| ADHD severity score | 7.44 | 7.79 | 14.48 | 4.38 | 0.31 | 0.97 | 26.95 | <0.001 |
| A Baseline Age
Distribution | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Total (N=145) |
ADHD (N=73) |
HC (N=72) |
|
| Age 7 | 13.8 (20) | 15.1 (11) | 12.5 (9) |
| Age 8 | 16.6 (24) | 12.3 (9) | 20.8 (15) |
| Age 9 | 18.6 (27) | 23.3 (17) | 13.9 (10) |
| Age 10 | 4.8 (7) | 4.1 (3) | 5.6 (4) |
| Age 11 | 9.0 (13) | 8.2 (6) | 9.7 (7) |
| Age 12 | 7.6 (11) | 6.8 (5) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 13 | 5.5 (8) | 2.7 (2) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 14 | 8.3 (12) | 8.2 (6) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 15 | 4.8 (7) | 1.4 (1) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 16 | 11.0 (16) | 17.8 (13) | 4.2 (3) |
| B Age Distribution at Last Assessment | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Total (N=145) |
ADHD (N=73) |
HC (N=72) |
|
| Age 13 | 1.4 (2) | 2.7 (2) | 0.0 (0) |
| Age 14 | 0.0 (0) | 0.0 (0) | 0.0 (0) |
| Age 15 | 0.7 (1) | 1.4 (1) | 0.0 (0) |
| Age 16 | 0.0 (0) | 0.0 (0) | 0.0 (0) |
| Age 17 | 9.0 (13) | 8.2 (6) | 9.7 (7) |
| Age 18 | 15.2 (22) | 8.2 (6) | 22.2 (16) |
| Age 19 | 13.1 (19) | 11.0 (8) | 15.3 (11) |
| Age 20 | 13.1 (19) | 19.2 (14) | 6.9 (5) |
| Age 21 | 14.5 (21) | 21.9 (16) | 6.9 (5) |
| Age 22 | 6.9 (10) | 6.8 (5) | 6.9 (5) |
| Age 23 | 9.7 (14) | 8.2 (6) | 11.1 (8) |
| Age 24 | 6.9 (10) | 5.5 (4) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 25 | 6.2 (9) | 4.1 (3) | 8.3 (6) |
| Age 26 | 2.8 (4) | 1.4 (1) | 4.2 (3) |
| Age 27 | 0.7 (1) | 1.4 (1) | 0.0 (0) |
ADHD=attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, ASPD=antisocial personality disorder, F.E. = Fisher’s Exact Test, HC=healthy control, MDD=major depressive disorder, ODD=oppositional defiant disorder, SES=socioeconomic status, SUD=substance use disorder