Table 3.
Dynamic solid phase extraction procedures for separation/preconcentration of ruthenium from environmental samples
| Type of sorbent | Optimal preconcentration/separation conditions | Comment | Detection technique; LOD | Analysed samples | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sorption | Elution | |||||
| Epoxy-imidazole resin |
Mass of sorbent: 0.1 g Sample: pH 4 FR: 2 mL min−1 |
Eluent: 0.16 mol L−1 TU + 6 mol L−1 HCl (16 mL) FR: 1.5 mL min−1 |
Precision as RSD: <5 % Interferences: Ni(II) > 2 μg mL−1 |
ICP OES; 10–100 ng mL−1 |
Metal smelter | [10] |
| Cation exchange resin Amberlite CG-120 |
Volume of sorbent: 3 mL Conditioning agent: 6 mol L−1 HCl (20 mL), 0.2 mol L−1 HCl (15 mL) Sample: 0.2 mol L−1 HCl |
Eluent: 0.2 mol L−1 HCl (4 mL) | Precision as RSD: < 8 % | ICP MS; < 4 ng g−1 | Copper-nickel sulphide ores | [22] |
| Anion-exchange resin AG 1-X8 |
Mass of sorbent: 1.0 g Conditioning agent: 6 mol L−1 HNO3, HCl, H2O Sample: 0.1 mol L−1 HCl FR: 1 mL min−1 Clean-up: 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (12 mL) |
Eluent: 5 mol L−1 HCl + 5 mol L−1 HClO4 (12 mL) FR: 0.5 – 1 mL min−1 |
– | ID ICP MS; 0.41 ng g−1 | Peridotite (CRM: WPR-1, WMS-1), Meteorite sample (Orgueil) | [5] |
| Anion-exchange resin Dowex 1-X8 |
Mass of sorbent: 1 g Sample: 0.4 mol L−1 HCl FR: 2 mL min−1 Clean-up: 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (10 mL) |
Resin was ashed at 550 °C, dissolved with 1 mL of conc. HCl and HNO3 | – | USN ICP MS; pg g−1 | Geological samples, CRM: WMG-1, WITS-1 | [8] |
| Anion-exchange resin Dowex 1-X8 |
Conditioning agent: 1.0 mol L−1 HCl (100 mL) Sample: 1 mol L−1 HCl FR: 2 mL min−1 |
Eluent I: 0.3 mol L−1 TU in 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (75 mL) Eluent II:12 mol L−1 HCl (100 mL) |
Precision as RSD: 16.6–57.9 % |
ICP MS; 0.22 ng mL−1 ICP OES; 14 ng mL−1 |
Geological reference materials: PTM-1, PTC-1, SARM 7 | [7] |
|
IIP: Ru-TSd IIP: Ru-AcTSn |
Mass of sorbent: 0.1 g Conditioning agent: 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (3 mL) Sample: pH 7.5; FR: 1.5 mL min−1 Clean-up: 0.05 mol L−1 acetic acid (2 mL) |
Eluent: 0.2 mol L−1 TU in 0.2 mol L−1 HCl (3 mL) FR: 0.8 mL min−1 |
Precision as RSD: < 8.1 % Interferences: Pb(II) > 0.5 μg mL−1 Preconcentration factor: 10–25 Durability of sorbents: 100 cycles |
ETAAS; 0.16 ng mL−1 0.25 ng mL−1 | Tap and river water, sewage, grass, hair | [15] |
| IIP: Ru-AAA |
Mass of sorbent: 0.2 g Conditioning agent: 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (3 mL) Sample: pH 6.5; FR: 1 mL min−1 |
Eluent: 0.3 mol L−1 TU in 0.1 mol L−1 HCl (3 mL) FR: 1 mL min−1 |
Precision as RSD: < 3.5 % Preconcentration factor: 30 Durability of sorbents: 75 cycles |
ETAAS; 0.32 ng mL−1 | Tap and river water, municipal and road sewage, grass | [14] |
| IIP: Ru-BnTSn |
Mass of sorbent: 0.1 g, Conditioning agent: H2O (4 mL) Sample: pH 8; FR: 0.6 mL min−1 |
Eluent: 0.3 mol L−1 TU in 0.3 mol L−1 HCl (2 mL) FR: 0.2 mL min−1 |
Interferences: Rh(III), Cd(II) > 5 μg mL−1 Precision as RSD: < 6.6 % Preconcentration factor: 25 Durability of sorbents: 40 cycles |
ETAAS; 0.26 ng mL−1 | Tap and river water, municipal sewage, road runoff, grass | [13] |
| IIP: Ru-TBA |
Mass of sorbent: 0.1 g Conditioning agent: H2O (4.5 mL) Sample: pH 3.5 FR: 1.2 mL min−1 Clean-up: 0.05 mol L−1 acetic acid (4 mL) |
Eluent: 4 mol L−1 NH3 (2 mL) FR: 0.4 mL min−1 |
Interferences: Pt(IV), Fe(III) > 5 μg mL−1 Precision as RSD: < 6.4 % Preconcentration factor: 40 Durability of sorbents: 300 cycles |
ETAAS; 0.21 ng mL−1 | Tap and river water, municipal sewage, road runoff, road dust, CRM: SARM 76 | This paper |
ETAAS electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, ICP MS inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, ICP OES inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, ID isotope dilution, USN ultrasonic nebulization, TSd thiosemicarbazide, AcTSn acetaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, BnTSn benzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, TBA 2-thiobarbituric acid, TU thiourea, CRM certified reference material, LOD limit of detection, FR flow rate