Table 1.

Neural regions associated with swallowing function

Region	Hypothesized role	References
Primary Somatosensory, motor and Motor Supplementary cortices (BA 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6)	Cortical processing of swallowing, including motor regulation and execution and motor control.	(Hamdy et al. 1999a; Hamdy et al. 1999b)
		(Mosier & Bereznaya 2001)
		(Martin et al. 2001)
Anterior cingulate (BA 24 and 32)	Higher order motor processing: swallowing movement planning and execution.	(Hamdy et al. 1999a; Hamdy et al. 1999b)
	Cognitive perceptual processes such as attention and response selection.	(Martin et al. 2001)
		(Martin et al. 2004)
Orbitofrontal cortex (BA 10, 11, 12, 44, 45, and 47)	Unclear	(Mosier et al. 1999b)
Parieto-occipital cortex (BA 7, 17, 18, 40)	Sensory processing of swallowing.	(Hamdy et al. 1999a)
		(Kern et al. 2001)
	Task-cue processing, not swallowing per se.	(Toogood et al. 2005)
	Movement planning and execution.	(Mosier & Bereznaya 2001)
Temporopolar cortex (BA 22 and 38)	Unclear	(Mosier et al. 1999b)
Insular cortex	Processing of gustatory input.	(Daniels et al. 2006)
	Intraoral sensory modulation.
		(Daniels & Foundas 1997)
		(Mosier et al. 1999a; Mosier et al. 1999b)
Internal capsule	Functional connection of the cortical and brain stem nuclei via the corticobulbar tracts.	(Mosier et al. 1999a; Mosier et al. 1999b)
		Gonzalez-Fernandez, et.al, 2008)
Thalamus	Sensory and motor input processing via thalamocortical and thalamostriatal pathways.	(Daniels et al. 1998)
		(Mosier et al. 1999b)
Basal Ganglia (caudate and/or putamen)	Gating of Sensory Output.	(Mosier & Bereznaya 2001)
		(Daniels et al. 1998)(Suzuki et al. 2003)
Cerebral Peduncle	Descending pathways from the cortex.	Miller(Miller, 1982)
Brain Stem	Central pattern generator, swallowing regulation.	(Jean, 1972; Jean, 1984; Jean, 2001)
Cerebellum	Regulation of adaptive coordination, sequencing, timing, learning and memory of motion.	(Zald & Pardo 1999)
		(Mosier & Bereznaya 2001)
		(Suzuki et al. 2003)