Table 2.
Summary of major clinical studies evaluating the relationship between vitamin D status and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk
| Source | Study design | Condition | Population (cases) | Main outcome(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Martins et al65 | Retrospective study (secondary analysis of the US NHANES III data) | Mean 25(OH)D3 levels =30 ng/mL | 15,088 participants in the US | Serum 25(OH)D3 levels were negatively associated with important CVD risk factors, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and high serum TG levels |
| Ponda et al17 | Cross-sectional (retrospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <20 ng/mL | 107,811 participants in the US | Vitamin D deficiency was associated with an unfavorable lipid profile, including higher TC, LDL, TG, and lower HDL |
| Park and Lee64 | Cross-sectional (retrospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <25 nmol/L | 5,559 Korean participants | Vitamin D insufficiency was associated with increased prevalence of CVD, accompanied by higher waist circumference, fasting glucose, LDL, and TG levels and lower HDL cholesterol levels |
| Wang et al69 | Cross-sectional (prospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <15 ng/mL | 1,739 Framingham offspring | Vitamin D deficiency was associated with incident CVD |
| Dobnig et al70 | Cross-sectional (prospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <13.3 ng/mL | 3,258 participants in Austria | Low 25(OH)D3 and 1,25(OH)2D3 levels were independently associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality |
| Semba et al68 | Cross-sectional (prospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <10.5 ng/mL | 1,006 participants in Italy | Older community-dwelling adults with low serum 25(OH)D3 levels were at higher risk for all-cause and CVD mortality |
| Zhao et al66 | Cohort study (prospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels<29 ng/mL | 2,609 participants with hypertension in the US | Concentrations of 25(OH)D3 were inversely associated with all-cause and CVD mortality among adults with hypertension in the US |
| Wasson et al67 | Cross-sectional (prospective study) | The 25(OH)D3 levels <15 ng/mL | 1,844 ischemic heart disease (IHD) patients | Vitamin D Levels of <15 ng/mL were associated with a hazard ratio of 2.30 (P=0.035) for IHD events compared to levels ≥30 ng/mL |
| Lim et al71 | Cross-sectional (prospective study) | 25(OH)D3 levels <30 ng/mL | 921 participants with hypertension in the US | Low 25(OH)D3 concentrations were independently associated with higher risk of coronary artery stenosis |
Abbreviations: TC, total cholesterol; LDL, low-density lipid; TG, triglyceride; HDL, high-density lipid; US NHANES, United States National Health and Nutrition examination Survey.