Table 3.

Associations between race, ethnic identity and nativity and total (dietary + supplement) micronutrient inadequacy in the study participants: pregnant women (n 274), PRISM study, Boston, MA, USA, March 2011–August 2012

	Foreign-born†		African American‡		Hispanic‡		Spanish-speaking		Low ethnic identity
Micronutrients	OR	95 % CI	OR	95 % CI	OR	95 % CI	OR	95 % CI	OR	95 % CI
Antioxidants
Vitamin A	1·35	0·51, 3·56	2·75*§	1·13, 6·68	4·79*§	2·37, 9·67	1·88	0·68, 5·21	2·02	0·76, 5·41
β-Carotene§	2·15*	1·22, 3·80	3·39*	1·39, 8·26	5·75*	2·82, 11·73	4·01*	2·12, 7·93	1·22	0·70, 2·14
Vitamin C	1·34	0·47, 3·85	8·25*	1·36, 49·94	7·04*	1·40, 35·28	1·06	0·33, 2·63	1·43	0·51, 3·97
Vitamin E	3·73*	2·04, 6·82	2·49*	1·04, 5·99	4·66*	2·33, 9·32	5·36*	2·71, 10·62	1·17	0·66, 2·08
Mg	1·41	0·79, 2·50	1·23	0·51, 2·95	1·61	0·82, 3·17	1·52	0·81, 2·86	2·19	1·20, 3·99
Se§	3·80	2·12, 6·80	5·25*	2·64, 10·43	4·32*	1·80, 10·36	5·12*	2·63, 9·94	0·85	0·49, 1·46
Zn	2·51*	1·05, 6·00	1·52§	0·64, 3·63	3·39*§	1·72, 6·69	3·13*	1·29, 7·61	2·29	0·97, 5·41
Methyl/epigenetic nutrients
Vitamin B12	0·42	0·08, 2·24	0·62§	0·25, 1·50	2·76*§	1·17, 4·43	0·82	0·12, 5·64	0·22	0·02, 1·99
Vitamin B6	2·42*	1·04, 5·62	4·53*	1·06, 19·33	5·65*	1·55, 20·53	2·24	0·96, 5·24	1·84	0·82, 4·17
Folate	0·82	0·37, 1·82	2·65	0·83, 8·42	1·94	0·72, 5·23	0·92	0·25, 3·40	1·60	0·73, 3·53
Riboflavin	0·86	0·17, 4·42	2·00§	0·83, 4·82	3·64*§	1·83, 7·22	1·31	0·23, 7·40	0·58	0·10, 3·32
Fe	3·69*	2·04, 6·67	2·61*	1·09, 6·22	4·68*	2·36, 9·28	5·11*	2·53, 10·32	0·96	0·55, 1·69
Methionine§||	1·80*	1·04, 3·10	1·58	0·69, 3·60	1·66	0·88, 3·11	2·07*	1·12, 3·81	1·30	0·75, 2·22
Choline§	3·63	0·93, 14·10	1·66§	0·72, 3·83	1·05§	0·56, 1·97	2·66	0·55, 12·81	0·33	0·08, 1·32
Betaine§||	6·66*	3·55, 12·49	2·61*	1·03, 6·60	15·10*	6·88, 33·13	11·44*	5·35, 24·46	1·05	0·60, 1·85
Bone-related
Vitamin D	2·85*	1·45, 5·59	0·35*	0·14, 0·87	1·60	0·74, 3·50	4·49*	1·78, 11·35	1·93*	1·01, 3·68
Ca	1·59	0·76, 3·32	3·15*	1·07, 9·27	2·39	0·97, 5·90	0·97	0·42, 2·23	1·54	0·75, 3·18
P§||	0·92	0·54, 1·58	1·37	0·59, 3·15	0·92	0·49, 1·74	0·62	0·34, 1·15	2·18*	1·25, 3·79
Electrolytes
K§	1·17	0·67, 2·03	2·85*	1·19, 6·81	1·64	0·86, 3·13	1·15	0·62, 2·11	1·11	0·64, 1·94
Na§||	1·03	0·60, 1·78	1·40	0·61, 3·19	1·68	0·89, 3·16	2·15*	1·17, 3·97	1·53	0·89, 2·63
Other
Thiamin	0·93	0·30, 2·93	2·52*§	1·04, 6·10	4·66*§	2·32, 9·39	1·54	0·47, 5·05	0·87	0·29, 2·63
Niacin	2·15	0·62, 7·51	1·98§	0·83, 4·71	3·97*§	2·01, 7·86	4·43*	1·24, 15·75	0·98	0·30, 3·16
Vitamin K||	1·38	0·67, 2·82	5·67*	1·82, 17·67	3·67*	1·35, 10·03	2·06	0·96, 4·44	1·20	0·58, 2·48

PRISM, PRogramming of Intergenerational Stress Mechanisms.

All analyses were adjusted for maternal age, BMI and smoking during pregnancy.

*Represents significance (P < 0·05).

†Women born in the USA are the reference group.

‡Caucasian women are the reference group. There were no significant findings among the other/mixed race category (data not shown).

§The median cut-point was used to define high and low total intake (vitamin A: 1133·62 μg; β-carotene: 4172·63 μg; Se: 111·36 μg; Zn: 13·58 mg; vitamin B₁₂: 6·79 μg; riboflavin: 2·62 mg; methionine: 1·49 mg; choline: 311·47 mg; betaine: 159·89 mg; P: 1352·36 mg; K: 2·78 g; Na: 3·15 g; thiamin: 1·95 mg; niacin: 26·33 mg).

||Based on dietary intake only.