Leptin–melanocortin pathway in obesity-induced hypertension. Schematic representation of the interactions of obesity, leptin and melanocortin system. LRs, leptin receptors; (±), stimulation or attenuation; POMC, pro-opiomelanocortin; α-MSH, alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone; MC4R, melanocortin-4 receptor; ARC, arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus; PVN, paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; LH, lateral hypothalamus; NTS, nucleus of the tractus solitarius; cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate; BP, blood pressure; HR, heart rate. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]