Table 2. The three-stage model for skills learning as proposed by Fitts and Posner.

	Goal of the learning stage	Key characteristics of the learning stage	Potential activities as applied to learning academic skills
1. Cognitive stage	Acquire the knowledge of what, how, and when to do the different tasks to achieve the goal of the skill	High degree of cognitive activity, including listening to instructions and receiving feedback about errors	Formal didactic courses, seminar; reading books and articles; informal advice from peers, mentors, and other researchers
2. Associative stage	Practice and performance improvement	Consciously translates cognitive knowledge into competence	Self-directed practice; conscious trial-and-error; self and peer review for refinement and improvement
3. Autonomous stage	Skill has become “second nature”	High level of proficiency, consistency, and confidence	Mastery of the skills as a part of routine