Fig. 5.

Real-time impedance detection of ion release from liposomes by heating of interdigitated electrode device. (a) Sample data for liposomes at two different concentrations is shown, including the normalized impedance and the stage temperature for 1,237 μl⁻¹ and 5,546 μl⁻¹ samples. The actual device temperature lags behind the stage temperature by a few seconds because it is insulated by a glass microscope slide. (b) Shows the normalized impedance value at 200 s for all samples versus liposome concentration with linear best fit (on a semilog axis). Measurements indicated by each unique symbol/color combination were recorded from the same batch of liposomes. Three different batches of liposomes were prepared and measured in total. (c) The rate of normalized impedance decrease, −dZ/dt, is plotted for the same two representative samples. (d) Summarizes all measurements with the same symbol/color scheme and linear best fit (on a semilog axis). Only liposome concentrations above the lower limit of detection (10³ μl⁻¹) are fitted