Number (mean ± SE) of c-Fos immunopositive cells in the VHML measured following social defeat. Dominants (black bars), subordinates (gray bars), and social experience controls (white bars) were exposed to social defeat, whereas handled controls (hatched bars) were not. There was a significant main effect of social status and significant differences between bracketed bars are represented by an asterisk (*, P < 0.05). Also, handled controls were significantly different than all other groups (#, P < 0.05).