Table 3. Epidemiologic Studies Evaluating Intakes of Calcium, Vitamin D, and Dairy Products and Risk of Advanced Prostate Cancer.

Author / Country	Sample Size	OR/RR (95% CI)*		P-trend	Confounders Adjusted for
Case Control Studies
Amin et.al., 2008 Canada	188 aggressive cases 268 controls	Dairy products	1.16 (0.68-1.97)	0.58	Age, ethnicity, education, family history of prostate cancer, smoking, alcohol consumption, sexually transmitted infections, cystitis, and prostatitis
Rowland et.al., 2011 USA	533 cases (256 advanced prostate cancer) 250 controls	Total Calcium	2.08 (1.22-3.53)	0.001	Age and family history of prostate cancer
		Dietary calcium	2.48 (1.43-4.28)	0.001
		Calcium Supplements	3.15 (1.09-9.15)
Cohort Studies
Giovannucci et.al., 1998 USA	47,781 subjects 423 Advanced cases 9 years of follow-up	Total Calcium	2.97 (1.61-6.50)	0.002	Age, BMI at age 21, intake of energy, fat, vitamin D, phosphorus, vitamin E, lycopene, and fructose
		Phosphorus	0.67 (0.40-1.13)
		Vitamin D intake	1.48 (0.91-2.39)
Schuurman et.al., 1999 The Netherlands	58,279 subjects 642 prostate cancer cases 6.3 years of follow-up	Milk and milk products	0.99 (0.95–1.03)		Age, family history of prostate cancer, and socioeconomic status
		Whole milk, fermented	0.84 (0.66–1.05)
		Low-fat milk, fermented	1.03 (0.95–1.11)
		Whole milk	1.00 (0.95–1.06)
		Low-fat milk	0.99 (0.93–1.06)
		Cheese 22.8	0.92 (0.78–1.08)
		Cheese	1.05 (0.66–1.68)
		Low-fat cheese	0.95 (0.60–1.52)
Ahn et.al., 2007 USA	29,509 men 1,910 cases 986 aggressive cases 9 years of follow-up	Total dairy	1.07 (0.79-1.45)	0.73	Age, race, BMI, study center, family history of prostate cancer, smoking status, physical activity, history of diabetes, education, and number of screening examinations during the follow-up period, and intake of energy and red meat
		Low fat dairy	1.17 (0.90-1.53)	0.66
		High fat dairy	1.13 (0.91-1.42)	0.43
		Total Calcium	0.58 (0.34-1.02)	0.66
		Dietary Calcium	0.77 (0.38-1.55)	0.54
		Supplemental Calcium	1.03 (0.64-1.65)	0.84
Park et.al., 2007 USA	293,888 subjects 10,180 incident cases (1,426 cases) 6 years of follow-up	Total Calcium	1.25 (0.91-1.71)	0.006	Age, race, education, marital status, BMI, vigorous physical, alcohol consumption, history of diabetes, family history of prostate cancer, screening for prostate cancer, and intakes of energy, tomatoes, red meat, fish, vitamin E, and α-linolenic acid
		Whole milk	0.93 (0.58-1.49)	0.20
		Low fat milk	0.87 (0.68-1.12)	0.91
		Skim milk	1.23 (0.99-1.64)	0.01
		Cheese	1.03 (0.75-1.42)	0.85
		Yogurt	0.78 (0.25-2.50)	0.68
Allen et al., 2008 Europe	142,251 subjects 2,727 Prostate cancer cases 541 advanced cases 8.7 years of follow-up	Total calcium	1.05 [0.91-2.22]	0.49	Education, marital status, height, weight and energy intake
		Dairy calcium:	1.04 [0.91-1.22]	0.57
		Non dairy calcium:	1.04 [0.47-2.29]	0.93
Wright et al., 2011 Finland	27,111 subjects 1929 incident cases 438 advanced cases 21 years of follow-up	Total dairy	0.89 (0.58-1.37)	0.47	Smoking (dose and duration), trial intervention assignment, education, and intake of energy and fat
		Butter	1.45 (1.07-1.96)	0.05
		Cheese	1.35 (1.01-1.81)	0.35
		Cream	1.28 (0.97-1.67)	0.04
		Cultured milk	1.21 (0.92-1.60)	0.15
		Ice cream	0.92 (0.70-1.21)	0.60
		Low-fat milk	0.74 (0.56-0.99)	0.15
		Sour milk	1.23 (0.94-1.62)	0.16
		Whole milk	0.95 (0.70-1.29)	0.15
		Yogurt	1.01 (0.77-1.32)	0.94
		Dairy fat	1.25 (0.93-1.66)	0.38
		Calcium	1.62 (1.08-2.43)	0.04

^*Highest vs. Lowest Categories.