Table 4. Epidemiologic Studies Evaluating Intakes of Fruits, Vegetables, and Vitamins and Risk of Advanced Prostate Cancer.
| Author | Sample Size | OR/RR (95% CI)* | P-trend | Confounders Adjusted for | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||
| Case-Control Studies | |||||
|
| |||||
|
Kolonel et al., 2000 USA & Canada |
1619 cases (514 advanced) 1618 controls |
Dark green vegetables | 0.88 (0.62-1.24) | 0.35 | Age, education, ethnicity, geographic area, and calories. |
| Yellow-orange vegetables | 0.67 (0.48-0.94) | 0.01 | |||
| Cruciferous vegetables | 0.61 (0.42-0.88) | 0.006 | |||
| Corn | 0.78 (0.56-1.10) | 0.12 | |||
| Carrots | 0.50 (0.36-0.70) | 0.001 | |||
| All vegetables | 0.67 (0.46-0.96) | 0.04 | |||
| Citrus fruits | 1.22 (0.88-1.70) | 0.45 | |||
| Papaya | 0.85 (0.62-1.18) | 0.34 | |||
| All fruits | 1.13 (0.80-1.60) | 0.36 | |||
| Soy foods | 0.59 (0.35-1.00) | 0.13 | |||
| Legumes (excluding soy) | 0.73 (0.50-1.07) | 0.11 | |||
| All legumes | 0.74 (0.52-1.06) | 0.04 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Amin et al., 2008 Canada |
188 aggressive cases 268 controls |
Any green vegetables Fruits (fresh juice) | 0.89 (0.65-2.14) | 0.27 | Age, ethnicity, education, family history of prostate cancer, smoking, alcohol consumption, sexually transmitted infections, cystitis, and prostatitis. |
| 1.55 (0.91-2.62) | 0.10 | ||||
|
| |||||
| Hardin et al., 2011 | 470 aggressive cases 512 controls |
All vegetables | 0.71 (0.48-1.05) | 0.04 | Age, race, institution, energy intake, and history of first-degree relative with prostate cancer. |
| Cruciferous veg. | 0.91 (0.62-1.33) | 0.20 | |||
| Leafy vegetables | 0.66 (0.46-0.96) | 0.02 | |||
| High carotenoid veg | 0.71 (0.48-1.04) | 0.04 | |||
| Tomato | 1.12 (0.76-1.67) | 0.74 | |||
| All fruits | 0.70 (0.48-1.03) | 0.18 | |||
| High Vitamin C | 0.69 (0.47-1.00) | 0.09 | |||
| High carotenoid fruits | 0.79 (0.54-1.14) | 0.26 | |||
|
| |||||
| Cohort Studies | |||||
|
| |||||
|
Giovannuci et al., 1998 USA |
47,781 subjects 423 advanced cases 9 years of follow-up | Vitamin D intake | 1.48 (0.91-2.39) | 0.64 | Age, BM1 at age 21, intake of energy, fat, vitamin D, phosphorus, vitamin E, lycopene, and fructose |
| Fruit intake | 0.63 (0.43-0.93) | ||||
| Total Fructose | 0.51 (0.33-0.80) | 0.007 | |||
| α-Linolenic acid | 1.33 (0.97-1.81) | 0.007 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Giovannucci et al., 2003 USA |
47,365 men 2,969 incident cases 14 years of follow-up |
Cruciferous Vegetables: | Age, time period, BMI at age 21, BMI in 1986, height, cigarette pack-years in the previous 10 years, family history of prostate cancer, history of diabetes mellitus, vigorous physical activity, and intakes of total calories, red meat, processed meat, fish, linolenic acid, calcium, and tomato sauce | ||
| < 65 years old | 0.90 (0.48-1.70) | 0.25 | |||
| ≥ 65 years old | 1.10 (0.77-1.59) | 0.07 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Stevens et al., 2006 USA |
65,836 men 5,158 incident cases 9 years follow-up |
Dietary folate | 0.78 (0.53-1.15) | 0.21 | Age, race, education, intake of energy, calcium, vitamin B12, and ethanol, family history of prostate cancer, prostate-specific antigen screening, and history of diabetes. |
| Total folate | 0.79 (0.54-1.17) | 0.58 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Lawson et al., 2007 USA |
295,344 subjects 10,241 Incident cases 1,476 advanced cases 6 years of follow-up |
Multivitamin | 1.32 (1.04-1.67) | 0.21 | Age, BMI, race, height, family history of prostate cancer, education, smoking status, alcohol drinking, physical activity, marital status, personal history of diabetes, and intakes of tomato, and tomato products, fish, red meat, linolenic acid, dietary calcium, individual calcium supplement, dietary vitamin D, dietary zinc, individual zinc supplement, dietary vitamin E, and individual vitamin E supplement. |
| Selenium use | 1.53 (0.82-2.85) | 0.36 | |||
| No Selenium use | 1.28 (0.98-1.67) | 0.28 | |||
| Vitamin E | 1.32 (0.98-1.77) | 0.55 | |||
| No Vitamin E | 1.09 (0.66-1.81) | 0.30 | |||
| Folate use | 1.19 (0.69-1.05) | 0.63 | |||
| No Folate use | 1.29 (0.98-1.70) | 0.27 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Weinstein et al., 2007 USA |
29,133 subjects 1,732 incident cases 19 years of follow-up |
α-tocopherol | 0.56 (0.36-0.85) | 0.002 | Age at randomization, trial intervention arm, serum cholesterol, weight, urban residence, and education. |
|
| |||||
|
Wright et al., 2007 USA |
295,344 subjects 10,241 incident cases (1,476 advanced cases) 5 years of follow-up |
Supplemental Vit. E | 0.86 (0.65-1.13) | 0.11 | Age, race, BMI, education, personal history of diabetes, family history of prostate cancer, and intake of red meat, a-linolenic acid, vitamin C (including supplements), and h-carotene (including supplements) |
| α-tocopherol | 0.93 (0.76-1.13) | 0.21 | |||
| β-tocopherol | 1.00 (0.84-1.19) | 0.90 | |||
| γ-tocopherol | 0.68 (0.56-0.84) | 0.001 | |||
| δ-tocopherol | 0.80 (0.67-0.96) | 0.01 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Nimptsch et al., 2008 Europe |
11,319 men 268 incident cases (113 advanced) 8.6 years of follow-up |
Phyloquinone | 1.09 (0.52-2.27) | 0.93 | Smoking, education, vigorous physical activity, energy from fat, alcohol, nonfat-non alcohol energy, calcium, vitamin D, tomato or tomato products (All nutrients entered as quartile-dummies), BMI, history of diabetes, and family history of prostate cancer. |
| Menaquinones | 0.33 (0.14-0.80) | 0.01 | |||
| MK-42 | 0.71 (0.40-1.27) | ||||
| MK-5-9 | 0.80 (0.64-1.00) | ||||
| Menaquinones-from meat | 0.84 (0.50-1.41) | ||||
| Menaquinones (from dairy products) | 0.79 (0.63-0.98) | ||||
|
| |||||
|
Kasperzyk et al., 2009 Sweden |
No. of men in cohort (not reported) 525 total prostate cancer 295 advanced cases |
Folate | 1.04 (0.63-1.72) | 0.71 | Age at diagnosis, calendar year of diagnosis, non-alcohol energy intake, height, BMI at diagnosis, and smoking status. Models for folate, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, and methionine were additionally adjusted for alcohol use |
| Riboflavin | 0.96 (0.60-1.52) | 0.58 | |||
| Vit B-6 | 1.40 (0.64-1.72) | 0.87 | |||
| Vit B-12 | 0.74 (0.45-1.22) | 0.26 | |||
| Methionine | 1.07 (0.67-1.73) | 0.82 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Takachi et al., 2010 Japan |
46,033 subjects 93 advanced cases 321,061 person-years of follow-up |
Fruit | 1.07 (0.57-2.00) | 0.41 | Age, public health center area, BMI, smoking status, marital status, alcohol consumption, intake of dairy food and soy products, green tea consumption, vitamin supplement use, screening examinations |
| Total vegetables | 1.06 (0.55-2.06) | 0.91 | |||
| Green leafy vegetables | 0.66 (0.36-1.21) | 0.36 | |||
| Cruciferous vegetables | 1.04 (0.51-2.12) | 0.62 | |||
| Yellow vegetables | 0.72 (0.38-1.37) | 0.28 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Key et al., 2007 Europe |
137,001 subjects 966 incident cases matched with 1064 controls 6 years of follow-up | Sum of plasma carotenoids | 0.35 (0.17-0.78) | 0.04 | Smoking status, alcohol intake, BMI, marital status, physical activity, and education |
| Plasma lycopene | 0.40 (0.19-0.88) | 0.05 | |||
|
| |||||
|
Agalliu et al., 2011 Canada |
Subcohort 1979 Advanced cases 173 2 years of follow-up |
Oxidative balance score | 0.91 (0.54-1.51) | 0.91 | Age at baseline, race, BMI, exercise activity, and education |
| Cruciferous vegetables | 1.28 (0.74-2.20) | 0.67 | |||
| Total vitamin C | 0.72 (0.44-1.19) | 0.96 | |||
| Total Vitamin E | 1.39 (0.85-2.27) | 0.09 | |||
| β-Carotene | 1.26 (0.76-2.09) | 0.87 | |||
| β-Cryptoxanthin | 0.75 (0.44-1.29) | 0.21 | |||
| Lutein & Zexanthin | 0.81 (0.48-1.36) | 0.11 | |||
| Selenium | 0.46 (0.14-1.35) | 0.13 | |||
*
Highest vs. Lowest Categories.