TABLE 2.
Baseline cardiovascular health, metabolic control and regulatory hormones, and changes at follow-up1
| All participants (n = 33) |
Breakfast group (n = 16) |
Fasting group (n = 17) |
||||
| Baseline | Change from baseline (95% CI) | Baseline | Change from baseline (95% CI) | Baseline | Change from baseline (95% CI) | |
| Cardiovascular health2 | ||||||
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 193.1 ± 34.73 | 7.7 (−1.5, 15.1) | 193.1 ± 46.3 | 3.9 (−7.7, 19.3) | 193.1 ± 23.2 | 7.7 (−3.9, 19.3) |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 50.2 ± 11.6 | 3.9 (2.3, 7.7)* | 54.1 ± 11.6 | 3.9 (1.2, 7.7) | 50.2 ± 11.6 | 3.9 (1.9, 7.7) |
| LDL cholesterol4 (mg/dL) | 127.4 ± 30.9 | 3.9 (−3.9, 7.7) | 123.6 ± 34.7 | 0.4 (−11.6, 11.6) | 127.4 ± 23.2 | 3.9 (−3.9, 15.4) |
| Triacylglycerols (mg/dL) | 75.2 ± 25.7 | −3.5 (−10.6, 3.5) | 76.1 ± 32.7 | −0.88 (−12.4, 9.7) | 74.3 ± 16.8 | −5.3 (−15.9, 5.3) |
| NEFAs (mg/dL) | 16.33 ± 7.04 | −0.28 (−2.82, 2.54) | 15.49 ± 5.35 | 1.69 (−2.25, 5.35) | 17.18 ± 8.45 | −1.97 (−6.20, 1.97) |
| IL-6 (pg/mL) | 2.18 ± 1.30 | −0.07 (−1.10, 0.97) | 2.25 ± 1.31 | −0.53 (−1.21, 0.15) | 2.11 ± 1.33 | 0.37 (−1.63, 2.37) |
| CRP (mg/L) | 0.65 ± 0.67 | −0.11 (−0.31, 0.08) | 0.79 ± 0.82 | −0.13 (−0.46, 0.21) | 0.53 ± 0.50 | −0.10 (−0.36, 0.16) |
| Metabolic control | ||||||
| Glucose (mg/dL) | 95.5 ± 5.4 | 1.1 (−1.1, 3.4) | 95.5 ± 5.4 | 1.1 (−3.6, 5.4) | 97.3 ± 5.4 | 1.3 (−1.8, 3.6) |
| Insulin (μIU/mL) | 3.40 ± 1.77 | 0.33 (−0.23, 0.90) | 3.37 ± 2.15 | 0.35 (−0.32, 1.00) | 3.43 ± 1.43 | 0.32 (−0.67, 1.30) |
| HOMA-IR5 | 0.81 ± 0.43 | 0.10 (−0.05, 0.25) | 0.79 ± 0.52 | 0.10 (−0.06, 0.26) | 0.83 ± 0.36 | 0.10 (−0.16, 0.36) |
| C-ISI Matsuda index5 | 11.5 ± 7.3 | −0.22 (−1.66, 1.22) | 12.1 ± 6.6 | −0.97 (−3.70, 1.77) | 11.1 ± 8.0 | 0.38 (−1.29, 2.05) |
| Index of adipose insulin sensitivity6 (%) | 79.1 ± 13.3 | 6.2 (0.2, 12.3)* | 79.2 ± 12.9 | 9.9 (0.8, 19.0) | 79.1 ± 14.1 | 3.3 (−5.5, 12.1) |
| Regulatory hormones | ||||||
| Triiodothyronine (free-T3) (pg/mL) | 2.90 ± 0.53 | 0.04 (−0.10, 0.18) | 2.84 ± 0.63 | 0.04 (−0.20, 0.28) | 2.97 ± 0.43 | 0.04 (−0.15, 0.23) |
| Thyroxine (free-T4) (ng/dL) | 1.23 ± 0.16 | 0.04 (−0.02, 0.10) | 1.24 ± 0.16 | 0.04 (−0.05, 0.13) | 1.21 ± 0.16 | 0.04 (−0.05, 0.13) |
| Leptin (μg/L) | 8.3 ± 7.5 | 0.4 (−1.0, 1.8) | 7.8 ± 7.5 | 0.7 (−1.5, 2.9) | 8.8 ± 7.6 | 0.2 (−1.9, 2.2) |
| Total ghrelin (pg/mL) | 405 ± 163 | −7 (−36, 22) | 409 ± 156 | 13 (−33, 59) | 400 ± 174 | −29 (−64, 7) |
| Acylated ghrelin (pg/mL) | 137 ± 70 | 5 (−2, 13) | 149 ± 83 | 6 (−5, 18) | 126 ± 55 | 4 (−6, 15) |
| Peptide YY (pg/mL) | 73.8 ± 31.9 | −0.5 (−7.8, 6.7) | 66.5 ± 28.6 | −2.8 (−12.4, 6.8) | 81.1 ± 34.2 | 1.9 (−10.4, 14.1) |
| GLP-1 (pg/mL) | 16.50 ± 14.19 | 3.96 (−1.98, 9.90) | 17.49 ± 17.16 | 2.31 (−2.97, 7.59) | 15.18 ± 10.56 | 5.61 (−6.27, 17.49) |
| Adiponectin (mg/L) | 8.9 ± 3.4 | 0.8 (0.2, 1.5)* | 9.8 ± 3.4 | 0.4 (−0.5, 1.3) | 8.1 ± 3.4 | 1.3 (0.3, 2.2) |
No variable differed significantly between groups at baseline, and there were no significant treatment × time interactions. *P ≤ 0.05. C-ISI, Composite-Insulin Sensitivity Index; CRP, C-reactive protein; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acid; OGTT, oral-glucose-tolerance test; T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine.
SI conversions: cholesterols × 0.0259 = mmol/L; triacylglycerol × 0.0113 = mmol/L; NEFA × 0.0355 = mmol/L; IL-6 × 0.131 = IU/mL; CRP × 9.524 = nmol/L; glucose × 0.0555 = mmol/L; insulin × 6.0 = pmol/L; free-T3 × 1.54 = pmol/L; free-T4 × 12.87 = pmol/L; leptin × 0.0625 = nmol/L; ghrelin × 0.296 = pmol/L; peptide YY × 4.31 = pmol/L; GLP-1 × 0.303 = pmol/L.
Mean ± SD (all such values).
Calculated by using the Friedewald equation: LDL cholesterol = total cholesterol − HDL cholesterol − (triacylglycerol/2.2).
HOMA-IR = [fasted insulin (μIU/mL) × fasted glucose (mmol/L)]/22.5; C-ISI Matsuda index = 10,000/√[fasted glucose (mg/dL) × fasted insulin (μIU/mL)] × [mean glucose over 120-min OGTT (mg/dL) × mean insulin over 120-min OGTT (μIU/mL)].
Based on insulin-stimulated adipose tissue [U-14C]-d-glucose uptake in cells treated with 50 pmol insulin/L expressed as a percentage of maximal/supraphysiologic stimulation with 20 nmol insulin/L [as used previously (36)].