Table 2.
Summary of epidemiologic studies of risk and protective factors for cognitive outcomes included in the review
| Study | Age/gender | Year | Country | Study design | Sample size | Outcomes | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
(1) Education |
Hypothesis: Lower education is associated with lower cognitive function or higher rate of cognitive decline or increased risk of dementia(including AD) |
||||||
| [21] |
65+/B |
1990 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 5,055 |
Prevalent AD and dementia |
+ |
| [22] |
Mean:58.5/B |
1991 |
Nigeria |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,350 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [23] |
65+/B |
1992 |
France |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,792 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [24] |
68-77/B |
1992 |
Finland |
Cross-sectional |
N = 403 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [25] |
65+/B |
1993 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4,485 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [26] |
75+/B |
1994 |
England |
Cohort |
N = 1,195 |
Indicent dementia |
0 |
| [27] |
65+/B |
1994 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 10,294 |
Incident cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [28] |
55+/B |
1995 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,330 |
Incident AD and VaD |
+(VaD) |
| [29] |
18+/B |
1995 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 14,883 |
Indicent dementia |
+ |
| [9] |
55-106/B |
1995 |
The Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 7,528 |
Prevalent dementia, AD and VaD |
+ |
| [30] |
65+/B |
1996 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,212 |
Prevalent dementia and cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [31] |
68-78/B |
1996 |
Finland |
Cross-sectional |
N = 403 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [32] |
70+/B |
1997 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 652 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [33] |
65+/B |
1997 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 642 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [34] |
50-80/B |
1997 |
Austria |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,927 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [35] |
Mean:75/M |
1997 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 528 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [36] |
69-74/M |
1997 |
Sweden |
Cross-sectional |
N = 504 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [37] |
55-84/B |
1997 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 5,825 |
Cognitive function, decline and incident/prevalent dementia |
+ |
| [38] |
65-84/B |
1997 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 2,063 |
Incident dementia |
+(IQ better predcitor) |
| [39] |
47-68/B |
1998 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 14,000 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [40] |
60+/B |
1998 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 495 |
Prevalent dementia |
0 |
| [41] |
65+/B |
1998 |
Taiwan |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,915 |
Prevalent dementia, AD and VaD |
+(AD) |
| [42] |
18+/B |
1999 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,488 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [43] |
65+/B |
1999 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 3,675 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [44] |
55-106/B |
1999 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 6,827 |
Incident dementia |
+(women) |
| [45] |
85+/B |
2000 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 494 |
Cognitive decline and function |
+ |
| [46] |
75+/B |
2001 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 1,296 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [47] |
65+/B |
2002 |
Spain |
Cohort |
N = 557 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [48] |
70+/B |
2002 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 6,577 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [49] |
65+/B |
2002 |
Brazil |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,656 |
Prevalent dementia and AD |
+ |
| [50] |
65+/B |
2002 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,016 |
Prevalent AD and VaD |
+ |
| [51] |
45-59/M |
2002 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,839 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [52] |
70-79/W |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 19,319 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+ |
| [53] |
70-79/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4,030 |
Cognitive decline |
+(ApoE-) |
| [54] |
66+/W |
2006 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 6,314 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+ |
| [55] |
Mean age: ~75/B |
2006 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,786 |
Incident dementia |
+(both whites and blacks) |
| [56] |
55+/B |
2006 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 34,807 |
Prevalent AD and VaD |
+(AD) |
| [57] |
50+/B |
2006 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 16,095 |
Prevalent dementia and AD |
+ |
| [58] |
65+/B |
2007 |
Guam |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,789 |
Prevalent dementia and AD |
+ |
| [59] |
64-81/B |
2007 |
The Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 578 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [60] |
60-64/B |
2009 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 416 |
Cognitive decline |
0 |
| [61] |
30-64/B |
2009 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,345 |
Cognitive function |
+(literacy better predictor) |
| [62] |
65-96/B |
2009 |
Spain |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,074 |
Prevalent dementia |
+ |
| [63] |
80+/B |
2009 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 3,336 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [64] |
Mean:72/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 6,000 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(cognitive function) 0(cognitive decline) |
| [65] |
60+/B |
2010 |
Malaysa |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,980 |
Prevalent dementia |
+ |
| [66] |
55+/B |
2010 |
India |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,466 |
Prevalent dementia and AD |
+ |
| [67] |
65+/B |
2010 |
Brazil |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,003 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [68] |
60+/B |
2011 |
Brazil |
Cohort |
N = 1,461 |
Cognitive decline |
- |
| [69] |
60-98/B |
2011 |
Italy |
Cohort |
N = 1,270 |
Incident cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [70] |
60+/B |
2011 |
Mexico |
Cohort |
N = 7,000 |
Prevalent and incident dementia |
+ |
| [71] |
54-95/B |
2011 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,014 |
Cognitive decline |
0 |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(2) Behavioral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(2.1.) Smoking |
Hypothesis: Current or ever smoking status is associated with lower cognitive function or higher rate of cognitive decline or increased risk of dementia(including AD) |
||||||
| [72] |
65+/B |
1993 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,201 |
Cognitive decline |
0 |
| [73] |
65+/B |
1994 |
France |
Cross-sectional |
N = 3,770 |
Prevalent AD, cognitive impairment |
0 |
| [74] |
74+/B |
1996 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 647 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [75] |
Mean:58.6/M |
1997 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,429 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [36] |
69-74/M |
1997 |
Sweden |
cross-sectional |
N = 504 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [76] |
75+/B |
1998 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 327 |
Incident dementia and AD |
0 |
| [77] |
adults/B |
1998 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,469 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [78] |
55+/B |
1998 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 6,870 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+(ApoE4−) |
| [79] |
56-69/M |
1999 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 569 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(ApoE4−) |
| [80] |
45-59/M |
1999 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,870 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [81] |
65+/B |
2000 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 889 |
Cognitive Impairment |
+ |
| [82] |
Mean: 81/M |
2000 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 34,439 |
Definite or probable AD |
0 |
| [83] |
45-70/B |
2002 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,927 |
Cognitive change |
+ |
| [84] |
65+/B |
2003 |
Taiwan |
Cohort |
N = 798 |
Cognitive decline |
0 |
| [85] |
43-53/B |
2003 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 3,035 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [86] |
Mean:78/M |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,734 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [87] |
60+/B |
2003 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 3,012 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [88] |
60+/B |
2004 |
China |
Cohort |
N = 2,820 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [89] |
65+/B |
2004 |
European cohorts |
Cohort |
N = 17,610 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [90] |
65-84/B |
2004 |
Italy |
Cohort |
N = 5,632 |
Mild cognitive impairment |
0 |
| [91] |
40-80/M |
2004 |
The Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 900 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [92] |
Mean:75/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 791 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(75 + and ApoE4−) |
| [93] |
40-44/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 8,845 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [94] |
50+/B |
2006 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 2,000 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [95] |
55+/B |
2007 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 6,868 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [96] |
43-70/B |
2008 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,964 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [97] |
35-55/B |
2008 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 4,659 |
Cognitive function |
+(memory) |
| [98] |
46-70/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 11,151 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [99] |
65+/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,557 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [100] |
90-108/B |
2009 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 681 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(men) |
| [63] |
Mean:83.5/B |
2009 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 3,336 |
Incident dementia |
0 |
| [101] |
65-79/B |
2010 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 1,449 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [102] |
Mean:71.8/B |
2010 |
Taiwan |
Cohort |
N = 1,436 |
Incident cognitive impairment |
- |
| [103] |
50y/M |
2011 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 2,268 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+(non-AD) |
| [104] |
Mean:60.1/B |
2011 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 21,123 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [105] |
44-69/B |
2012 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 7,236 |
Cognitive decline |
+(men) |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(2.2.) Alcohol |
Hypothesis: Moderate alcohol consumption is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia |
||||||
| [106] |
65+/B |
1996 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,040 |
Cognitive function |
+(J-shaped) |
| [107] |
59-71/B |
1997 |
France |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,389 |
Cognitive function |
+ (women) |
| [76] |
75+/B |
1998 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 327 |
Incident dementia and AD |
0 |
| [77] |
40-80/B |
1998 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1469 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [108] |
55-88/B |
1999 |
USA |
Cohort |
N = 1786 |
Cognitive function |
+(U-shaped) |
| [109] |
65+/B |
2001 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,836 |
Cognitive function |
+(U-shaped for men, linear for women) |
| [110] |
Mean:70/B |
2001 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 15,807 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(U-shaped) |
| [83] |
45-70/B |
2002 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,927 |
Cognitive change |
+(women > men) (J-shaped) |
| [111] |
18+/B |
2000 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,448 |
Cognitive decline |
+(women > men) (U-shaped) |
| [112] |
53/B |
2003 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 10,317 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [87] |
60+/B |
2003 |
China |
Cohort |
N = 3,012 |
Cognitive impairment |
- |
| [113] |
65-79/B |
2004 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 1,464 |
Cognitive function |
+(U-shaped) - (ApoE4+) |
| [114] |
65+/B |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4,417 |
Cognitive function |
+(current drinker vs. former or abstainer) |
| [115] |
35-55/B |
2004 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 10,308 |
Cognitive function |
+(linear, some cognitive domains) |
| [116] |
65+/B |
2005 |
US |
cohort |
N = 1,624 |
Cognitive function |
+(current drinker vs. former or abstainer) |
| [117] |
Mean:74/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,098 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(J-shaped) |
| [118] |
43-53/B |
2005 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 1,764 |
Cognitive decline |
Linear + (slower memory decline: men) -(faster psychomotor speed decline: women) |
| [119] |
20-24,40-44,60-64/B |
|
Australia |
Cross-sectional |
N = 7,485 |
Cognitive function |
J-shaped + (light drinkers vs. abstainers) |
| [120] |
70-81/W |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 11,102 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(J-shaped) (cognitive decline) |
| [121] |
65-89/M |
2006 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 760 |
Cognitive function |
+(linear, J-shaped) |
| [122] |
40+/B |
2006 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,428 |
Cognitive decline |
+(linear) |
| [123] |
65-79/B |
2006 |
Finland |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,341 |
Cognitive function |
+(linear) |
| [124] |
65-84/B |
2007 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,445 |
Incident MCI and MCI→ dementia |
+(U-shaped) |
| [125] |
50+/B |
2010 |
China |
Cohort |
N = 30,499 |
MCI→ dementia |
+(J-shaped) |
| [126] |
50+/B |
2010 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 9,571-28,537 |
Cognitive function |
+(occasional alcohol use vs. none) |
| [127] |
65+/B |
2009 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 314 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(U-shaped) |
| [128] |
70/B |
2011 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 922 |
Cognitive function |
+(linear, verbal memory) |
| [129] |
55+/B |
2011 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,337 |
Cognitive function |
0 -(executive function) |
| [130] |
55+/B |
2011 |
France |
Cross-sectional |
N = 4,073 |
Cognitive function |
-(high alcohol use, Low SES) |
| [131] |
45+/B |
2012 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 571 |
Cognitive decline |
+(heavy drinking) |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(2.3.) Physical activity |
Hypothesis: Physical activity is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD) |
||||||
| [132] |
70+/B |
2001 |
Hong Kong |
Cohort |
N = 2030 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [133] |
65+/B |
2001 |
Canada |
Cohort |
N = 4615 |
Incident cognitive impairment and AD |
+ |
| [134] |
65-84/M |
2001 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 347 |
Cognitive decline |
+(ApoE4+) |
| [135] |
65+/F |
2001 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 5,925 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [136] |
75+/B |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 469 |
Incident dementias (AD, VaD and others) |
+ |
| [137] |
71-93/M |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2257 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [138] |
65+/B |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1146 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [139] |
80+/M |
2004 |
European countries |
Cohort |
N = 295 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [140] |
70-81/W |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 18766 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [141] |
65+/M |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3375 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+(ApoE4-) |
| [142] |
65-79/B |
2005 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 1449 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [143] |
65+/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4055 |
Cognitive decline |
- |
| [144] |
75+/B |
2006 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 776 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [145] |
65+/B |
2006 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1740 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [146] |
65+/W |
2010 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 9344 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [147] |
60+/B |
2008 |
Greece |
Cohort |
N = 732 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [148] |
71-92/M |
2008 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2263 |
Dementia |
+ |
| [149] |
70+/B |
2009 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 668 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [100] |
90-108/B |
2009 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 681 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [150] |
65+/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1880 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [151] |
70-79/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2509 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+ |
| [152] |
Mean:51y/B |
2010 |
Iceland |
Cohort |
N = 4945 |
Cognitive function and dementia |
+ |
| [153] |
55+/B |
2010 |
Germany |
Cohort |
N = 3903 |
Incident cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [154] |
60+/B |
2010 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 5903 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [155] |
65+/W |
2010 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 9344 |
Cognitive function and impairment |
+ |
| [156] |
Mean:82/B |
2012 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 716 |
AD Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [157] |
40-84/B |
2012 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 405 (40–59 years) N = 342 (60–84 years) |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [158] |
65+/B |
2012 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2491 |
Incident dementia & AD |
+ |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(3) Nutritional |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(3.1) Caffeine(coffee or tea) |
Hypothesis: Caffeine consumption is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia |
||||||
| [159] |
18+/B |
1993 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 9,003 |
Cognitive function |
+(caffeine) |
| [160] |
Mean: 73/B |
2002 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,528 |
Cognitive function |
0(coffee) |
| [161] |
24-81/B |
2003 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,376 |
Cognitive change |
0(caffeine) |
| [162] |
70+/B |
2006 |
Japan |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,003 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(green tea) |
| [163] |
Mean ~ 75/M |
2007 |
Finland, the Netherlands and Italy |
Cohort |
N = 667 |
Cognitive decline |
+(coffee, J-shaped) |
| [164] |
55+/B |
2008 |
Singapore |
Cohort |
N = 1,438 |
Cognitive impairment and decline |
+(tea) |
| [165] |
65-79/B |
2009 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 1,409 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+(coffee), 0(tea) |
| [100] |
90+/B |
2009 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 681 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(tea, men) |
| [166] |
65+/B |
2009 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 2,606 |
Cognitive function, incident dementia and MCI |
0(coffee) |
| [167] |
70-74/B |
2009 |
Norway |
Cross-sectiona |
N = 2,031 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(tea) |
| [168] |
17-92/B |
2009 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 3,223 |
Cognitive function |
0(caffeine) |
| [169] |
70/B |
2010 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 923 |
Cognitive function |
+(coffee); −(tea) |
| [170] |
55+/B |
2010 |
Singapore |
Cross-sectional |
N = 716 |
Cognitive function |
+(tea) |
| [171] |
65+/B |
2010 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 641 |
Cognitive decline |
+(caffeine, women) |
| [172] |
65+/B |
2010 |
Portugal |
Cohort |
N = 648 |
Cognitive decline |
+(caffeine, women) |
| [173] |
65+/B |
2011 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4,809 |
Cognitive decline |
+(caffeine, women) |
| [174] |
Mean:54/M |
2011 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,494 |
Incident dementia and cognitive impairment |
0(caffeine) |
| [175] |
Mean:91.4/B |
2012 |
Singapore |
Cohort |
N = 7,139 |
Cognitive change |
+(tea) |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(3.2) Antioxidants/Vitamin E |
Hypothesis: Antioxidants, including vitamin E, are protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD) |
||||||
| [176] |
55-95/B |
1996 |
Netherlands |
cohort |
N = 5,182 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [177] |
66-97/B |
1998 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,059 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [178] |
65+/B |
1998 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 633 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [179] |
5075/B |
1998 |
Austria |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,769 |
Cognitive performance |
+(Vit. E) |
| [180] |
71-93/M |
2000 |
Hawaii |
Cohort |
N = 3,385 |
Incident AD, VaD, MD and OD |
+(VaD) |
| [181] |
48-67/B |
2000 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 12,187 |
Cognitive performance |
0 |
| [182] |
55+/B |
2002 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 5,395 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [183] |
65+/B |
2002 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 815 |
Incident AD |
+(Vit. E, ApoE4−) |
| [184] |
65-102/B |
2002 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,889 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [185] |
65+/B |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,969 |
Incident dementia Incident AD |
0 |
| [186] |
70-79/W |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 14,968 |
Cognitive function |
+(Vit. E) |
| [187] |
65+/B |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 980 |
Incident AD |
0 |
| [188] |
45-68/M |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,459 |
Incident dementia and AD |
0 |
| [189] |
65+/B |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 4,740 |
Incident and prevalent AD |
+ |
| [190] |
65+/B |
2005 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,033 |
Prevalent dementia and cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [191] |
55+/B |
2005 |
Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 3,717 |
Prevalent AD |
0 |
| [192] |
65-105/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 616 |
Incident Dementia Incident AD |
0 |
| [193] |
65+/B |
2005 |
Canada |
Cohort |
N = 894 |
Cognitive decline Dementia |
+ |
| [194] |
65+/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,718 |
Incident AD Cognitive function |
+ |
| [195] |
Mean:73.5/B |
2007 |
France |
Cross-sectional |
N = 589 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [196] |
60+/W |
2007 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 526 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(Vit. E) |
| [197] |
65+/B |
2007 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,831 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [198] |
65+/B |
2008 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,376 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [199] |
65+/B |
2008 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,969 |
Incident Dementia Incident AD |
0 |
| [200] |
65+/B |
2008 |
Italy |
Cohort |
N = 761 |
Cognitive impairment |
+(Vit. E Sub-type) |
| [201] |
70+/W |
2010 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 16,010 |
Cognitive function & decline |
+(cognitive function) |
| [202] |
70/B |
2011 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 882 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(3.3) Homocysteine |
Hypothesis: Homocysteine is a risk factor for poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia (including AD) |
||||||
| [203] |
55+/B |
1999 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 702 |
Cognitive function and decline |
0 |
| [204] |
60+/B |
2002 |
UK |
Cross-sectional |
N = 391 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [205] |
55+/B |
2002 |
The Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,077 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [206] |
Mean:76/B |
2002 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,092 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [207] |
60+/B |
2003 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,789 |
Global cognitive function |
+ |
| [208] |
Mean:73/B |
2003 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 650 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [209] |
65+/B |
2004 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 679 |
Incident and prevalent AD |
0 |
| [210] |
Mean:72/B |
2005 |
Turkey |
Cohort |
N = 1,249 |
Incident dementia, AD, MCI |
0 |
| [211] |
60+/B |
2005 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,789 |
Cognitive impairment and dementia |
0 |
| [212] |
40-82/B |
2005 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 2,096 |
Cognitive function |
+(60 + y) |
| [213] |
70-79/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 499 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(cognitive function) |
| [214] |
85+/B |
2005 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 599 |
Cognitive impairment and decline |
+(with impairment) |
| [215] |
65+/B |
2005 |
Switzerland |
Cohort |
N = 623 |
Incident MCI, dementia, AD and VaD |
+ |
| [216] |
60+/B |
2005 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,789 |
Cognitive impairment and dementia |
+ |
| [217] |
Mean:74/B |
2005 |
Italy |
Cohort |
N = 816 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [218] |
50-70/B |
2005 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,140 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [219] |
50-85/M |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 321 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [220] |
Mean:62/B |
2006 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 812 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [221] |
55+/B |
2006 |
China |
Cross-sectional |
N = 451 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [222] |
Mean:59/B |
2006 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 345 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [223] |
65+/B |
2007 |
UK |
Cohort |
N = 1,648 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [224] |
60-101/B |
2007 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 1,779 |
Incident dementia and MCI |
+ |
| [225] |
60-85/B |
2007 |
South Korea |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,215 |
Prevalent MCI |
+ |
| [226] |
26-98/B |
2008 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 911 |
Cognitive function |
+(ApoE4+) |
| [227] |
65+/B |
2008 |
Korea |
Cross-sectional |
N = 607 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [228] |
Mean:72/B |
2008 |
Korea |
Cohort |
N = 518 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [229] |
Mean:77/B |
2009 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 516 |
Prevalent and incident MCI |
0 |
| [230] |
38-85/B |
2010 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 488 |
Incident dementia |
0 |
| [231] |
65+/B |
2010 |
The Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,076 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [232] |
Mean:78/W |
2011 |
Germany |
Cross-sectional |
N = 420 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [233] |
38-60/W |
2011 |
Sweden |
Cohort |
N = 1,368 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [234] |
70-89/M |
2012 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 4,227 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [235] |
70-89/M |
2012 |
Australia |
Cohort |
N = 1,778 |
Incident cognitive impairment |
+ |
| Study |
Age/gender |
Year |
Country |
Design |
Sample size |
Outcome |
Finding |
|
(3.4) n-3 fatty acids |
Hypothesis: n-3 fatty acids are protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD) |
||||||
| [236] |
69-89/M |
1997 |
Netherlands |
cohort |
N = 476 |
Cognitive impairment & decline |
0 |
| [237] |
55+/B |
1997 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 5,386 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+ |
| [238] |
55+/B |
2002 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 5,395 |
Incident dementia and AD |
0 |
| [239] |
65-94/B |
2003 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 815 |
Incident AD |
+ |
| [240] |
45-70/B |
2004 |
Netherlands |
Cross-sectional |
N = 1,613 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [241] |
65+/B |
2005 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 3,718 |
Cognitive decline |
0 |
| [242] |
65+/B |
2007 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 8,085 |
Incident dementia and AD |
+(ApoE4-) |
| [243] |
50+/B |
2007 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,251 |
Cognitive decline |
+(hypertensive, Dyslipidemic) |
| [244] |
Mean:76/B |
2007 |
Italy |
Cross-sectional |
N = 935 |
Prevalent dementia |
+ |
| [245] |
50-70/B |
2007 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 404-807 |
Cognitive function and change |
+(change) |
| [246] |
50+/B |
2008 |
US |
Cohort |
N = 2,251-7,814 |
Cognitive decline |
+(hypertensives) |
| [247] |
65-80/B |
2008 |
Finland |
Cohort |
N = 1,449 |
MCI and cognitive function |
+ |
| [248] |
Mean:78/B |
2008 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 1,214 |
Incident dementia |
+ |
| [249] |
65+/B |
2009 |
Multi-national |
Cross-sectional |
N = 14,960 |
Prevalent dementia |
+ |
| [250] |
55+/B |
2009 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 5,395 |
Incident dementia and AD |
0 |
| [251] |
65+/B |
2009 |
Canada |
Cohort |
N = 663 |
Incident dementia or AD |
0 |
| [252] |
Mean:68/M |
2009 |
Netherlands |
Cohort |
N = 1,025 |
Cognitive function |
0 |
| [253] |
76-82/W |
2009 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 4,809 |
Cognitive decline |
+ |
| [254] |
Mean:75/B |
2010 |
Spain |
Cross-sectional |
N = 304 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [255] |
35-54/B |
2010 |
US |
Cross-sectional |
N = 280 |
Cognitive function |
+ |
| [256] |
55+/B |
2011 |
Singapore |
Cohort |
N = 1,475 |
Cognitive function and decline |
+(supplements) |
| [257] |
Mean:~64/B |
2011 |
France |
Cohort |
N = 3,294 |
Cognitive impairment |
+ |
| [258] | 65+/B | 2011 | France | Cohort | N = 1,228 | Cognitive decline | +(ApoE4+; depressed) |
+Hypothesized association; − Association against hypothesis; 0: No association.
Abbreviations: AD: Alzheimer’s Disease; ApoE: Apolipoprotein E; B: Both; M: Men; MCI: Mild Cognitive Impairment; MD = Mixed Dementia; OD = Other dementia; UK: United Kingdom; US: United States; VaD: Vascular Dementia; W: Women.