Table 3.
Epigenetic alterations induced by lead.
| Class | Cell lines or biological samples (location) | Assessment/modification | Identified gene targets | Dose (range) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DNA methylation | Maternal Tibia (Mexico, n = 103) | Global/hypomethylation | – | 10.5 ± 8.4 (μg/g) | Pilsner et al., 2009a |
| DNA methylation | Peripheral blood leukocytes (Greece, n = 19) | Targeted/hypermethylation | TP16 | 6–100 (ug/dL) | Kovatsi et al., 2010 |
| DNA methylation | Patella (USA, n = 2280) | Global/hypomethylation | – | 27.4 ± 19.7 (g/g) | Wright et al., 2010 |
| DNA methylation | Peripheral blood leukocytes (San Francisco, California, n = 41) | Targeted/hypomethylation | COL1A2 | 0.3–8.8 (μg/L) | Hanna et al., 2012 |
| DNA methylation | A431 (epidermoid carcinoma cells) | Targeted/hypomethylation | ↑ COX-2* | 0.1–10 μM for 0.5–2 h | Tsai et al., 2014 |
| mi-RNA | Peripheral blood leukocytes | Targeted/ | - | 3 d lead PM | Bollati et al., 2010 |
| ↑ miR-222 | |||||
| (Brescia, Italy, n = 63) | ↓ miR-146a |
↑, increased; ↓, decreased;
*
, functionally validated at the expression level; –, not functionally validated at the expression level; Global refers to global methylation patterns; Genome-wide refers to high throughput gene-specific assays; DMGs, differentially methylated genes.