Table 1.
Summary of included studies
| Age (year) | Source of control | Intake comparison | Red meat | Processed meat | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 20-70 | population-based | highest vs lowest | Red meat: 1.4 (0.7-2.8) | Sausage: 0.7 (0.2-2.5) Bacon: 1.5 (0.9-2.5) | age, province, education, social class and total energy intake | |
| 40-84 | population-based | > 9.8 vs < 3.5 (T/W) | Red meat: 3.3 (1.7-7.6) | age, education, pack-years, smoking history, fruits/fruit juices intake, nutrient-density calories, previous lung disease, alcohol consumption, and BMI (for red meat); Age, nutrient density calories (for white meat) | ||
| 23-89 | hospital-based | 250-600 vs < 150 (g/day) (Red) 250-525 vs < 150 (g/day) (Beef) 40-259 vs 0-10 (g/day) (Processed) | Red meat: 2.17 (1.52-3.10) Beef: 1.67 (1.17-2.39) | Processed meat: 1.70 (1.28-2.25) | age, sex, residence, education, income, interviewer, smoking status, cigarettes per day, duration of smoking, age at starting, years since quitting, alcohol, dairy foods, grains, fatty foods, mate drinking, BMI and energy intake | yes |
| NM | NHIS study | > 2.0 vs < 0.5 (Beef) > 1.0 vs < 0.02 (Pork) > 1.1 vs 0 (Bacon/Sausage) | Red meats: 1.6 (1.0-2.6) | Processed meats: 0.8 (0.5-1.4) | age, gender, smoking duration (years), and packs per day smoked | Meat/poultry/®sh |
| 50-71 | (NIH)-AARP study | highest quintile vs lowest | Red meat: 1.20 (1.10-1.31) | Processed meat: 1.16 (1.06-1.26) | age, sex, education, marital status, family history of cancer, race, BMI, smoking, energy, alcohol, and fruit and vegetable intake | |
| 30-89 | hospital-based | high vs low | Red meat: 1.92 (1.27-2.90) | Processed meat: 0.83 (0.55-1.26) | age, residence, urban/rural status, education, body mass index, tobacco smoking, and total energy intake. | |
| 62.5/62.7 | hospital-based | 4th vs 1st quartile | Red meat: 1.25 (0.78-1.99) Beef: 1.11 (0.77-1.61) Lamb: 1.24 (0.81-1.89) Fried meat: 1.54 (1.01-2.35) | Processed meat: 1.19 (0.75-1.89) Sausage: 1.05 (0.69-1.59) Salted meat: 1.19 (0.68-2.09) | age, residence, education, family history of lung cancer, BMI, alpha-carotene, smoking, total energy intake | White meat Poultry: Fish |
| 30-89 | hospital-based | > 9.1 vs < 5 (S/W) (Red) > 4.6 vs < 1.1 (S/W) (Processed ) | Red meat: 2.33 (1.63-3.32) | Processed meat: 1.79 (1.22-2.65) | age, residence, education, family history of lung cancer, BMI, smoking total energy intake, total vegetables and fruits, reduced glutathione, and nonmeat fatty foods intakes | white meat |
| 30-89 | hospital-based | > 1.8 vs < 0 (S/W)(Salted red meat) > 3.8 vs < 1 (S/W) (Fried red meat) | Salted meat: 2.90 (1.99-4.25) | age, residence, hospital, education, family history of lung cancer, BMI, smoking, alcohol drinking, mate amount, total fruits, total energy intake, non-meat fatty foods, and each meat type preparation | yes | |
| 62.1/59.4 | hospital-based | > 28.3 vs 11.4 (g/day) | processed meat: 2.54 (1.12-5.79) | age, residence, body mass index, smoking status, smoking, alcohol drinking, total energy, total vegetables and fruits, total white meat, and red meat intake | ||
| 30-79 | hospital-based | 4th vs 1th | Red meat: 1.55 (0.88-2.74) | 0.85 (0.47-1.56) | age, residence, education, family history of lung cancer, BMI, pack-years, total energy intake | yes |
| ≥ 35 | hospital-based | > 2 vs < 1 (T/W) | Pork: 0.36 (0.18-0.69) Beef: 1.89 (0.94-3.82) | sex, age, smoking habit and having worked in risk occupations for lung cancer | ||
| 35-90 | hospital-based | > 4 vs < 1 (T/W) | Red meat: 1.00 ( 0.55-1.83) | sex, age, smoking habit, interaction sex, smoking, and residence | White meat Fish | |
| 56.2/46.5 | hospital-based | Ever vs never | Red meat: 6.1 (4.3-8.5) | smoking, alcohol, coffee and milk consumption, chilli consumption, exposure to pesticides | chicken, fish | |
| 50 ≥ 65 | COSMOS screening study | Q4 vs Q1 | Red meat: 1.73 (1.15-2.61) | baseline risk probability and total energy, fruits and vegetables | ||
| 20-70 | population-based | > 5.42 vs < 0.94 | Processed meat: 1.4 (1.1-1.7) | age, province, education, body mass index sex, alcohol drinking, smoking, total vegetable and fruit intake, and total energy intake | ||
| 62/60 | hospital-based | Daily vs Never or monthly | Sausages: 0.99 (0.61-1.62) | age and region | ||
| 25-89 | hospital-based | Daily vs Never or monthly | Red meat: 1.40 (0.94-2.08) | age, residence, education, and pack-years of smoking | ||
| 25-89 | hospital-based | at least once/week vs never | Red meat: 1.53 (0.94-2.48) | age, residence, education, and pack-years of smoking | Poultry, Fish | |
| 35-79 | population-based | Red meat: 1.8 (1.5-2.2) | Processed meat: 1.7 (1.4-2.1) | age, gender, area of residence, education, BMI, alcohol, smoking intensity in pack-year per day | ||
| 63.5/66 | hospital-based | 3rd tertile vs 1st tertile 2nd tertile vs 1st tertile (Bacon) | Pork: 1.15 (0.80-1.64) | Processed meat: 0.83 (0.55-1.25) Bacon: 1.51 (1.06-2.16) Sausages: 1.00 (0.69, 1.43) | for age, history of cancer in first-degree relative, country of origin, dwelling type, yr of education, usual body mass index, and fruit and vegetable intake (only for meat variables) | Yes |
| 44-75 | hospital-based | > 7 (T/W) vs < 3 (T/W) | Red meat: 0.71 (0.43-1.18) | education, age, cooking oil fume, use of fume extractor, and ETS. | Yes | |
| 25-70 | EPIC study | ≥ 80 vs <9 (g/day) | Red meat: 1.19 (0.94-1.50) | 0.92 (0.73-1.17) | sex, center, age, smoking, body weight and height, energy intake, intake of alcohol, fruits and vegetables, physical activity, education | |
| 63/61 | population-based | Tertile 3 vs Tertile 1 | Red meat: 0.9 (0.5-1.9) | age, ethnicity, and smoking | Fish, Poultry | |
| 67.3/66.5 | hospital-based | high vs low | Beef: 0.86 (0.37-2.00) Lamb: 0.74 (0.28-1.93) | smoking | Poultry | |
| 53 | population-based | Frequently vs Rarely | Preserved meats: 0.5 (0.35-0.71) | age, sex, literacy, lung cancer in first-degree relatives, hours spent at home per day, non-malignant lung disease history, coal mine work history, ever smoking, passive smoking, coal type at birth, food. | ||
| 30-84 | population-based | 90th percentile vs 10th | Red meat: 1.8 (1.2-2.7) | age, fat intake, calories, smoking, BMI, fruit and vegetable intake as continuous variables, education, other meat variables | White meat | |
| 35-84 | population-based | > 11.9 vs < 4.2 (T/W) | Red meat: 1.89 (1.2-3.0) | adjusted for age, total kcal, education, pack-years of smoking, body mass index (kg/m2), fruit and vegetable intake | Yes | |
| 50-71 | NIH-AARP Diet | 5th vs 1th | Red meat: M 1.22 (1.09-1.38) W: 1.13 (0.97-1.32) | Processed meat: M 1.23 (1.10-1.37) W: 1.00 (0.87-1.15) | age, energy intake | |
| 55-74 | PLCO Cancer Screening Trial | 5th vs 1th | Red meat: M 1.11 (0.79-1.56) W: 1.30 (0.87-1.95) | Processed meat M: 1.52 (1.13-2.03) W: 0.98 (0.68-1.41) | for age and energy intake | |
| 25-89 | hospital-based | Daily vs Never or monthly | Red meat: 1.21 ( 0.68 -2.15)(Adenocarcinoma) Red meat: 1.81 (1.04-3.18) (other type) | |||
| 30-84 | population-based | Q4 vs Q1 | Beef: 0.9 (0.5-1.4) Pork: 1.4 (0.9-2.2) | Bacon: 2.9 (1.8-4.6) Sausage: 3.4 (2.0-6.0) | age, ethnicity, smoking status, pack-years of cigarette use, and beta-carotene intake | |
| 20-76 | population-based | Q4 vs Q1 | Red meat: 1.3 (1.1-1.5) | Processed meat: 1.4 (1.1-1.7) | age, province, education, body mass index, sex, alcohol use, smoking, total of vegetable and fruit intake, total energy intake |