. 2014 Jun 7;1(3):215–227. doi: 10.1007/s40474-014-0019-1

Table 2.

Neuroimaging studies on LD

Article	Study group and selection criteria	Sample size (males)	Mean age (range) in years	Methods	Brain behaviour correlation	Decreases in study group (effect size)	Increases in study group (effect size)
Badcock et al 2012 [29]	SLI <10th percentile on ≤ 2 language or literacy tests (Ax: CCC-2 [59] or CC-A [60], TROG-2 [61], TOWRE [62], NEPSY [63], and ≥ 80 WASI [64].	SLI (n = 10; 9 M); SIB (n = 6; 4 M); TD(n = 16; 7 M)	1. SLI: 13.5 (8–17) 2. SIB: 18 (12–22), 3. TD: 12.50 (6–25)	VBM (whole brain) fMRI Silent word association task (“Speech”) Vs. Passive listening to reversed speech	Not examined	Reduced grey matter: SLI < TD: Medial frontal pole, L + R pSTS ext. to R STG, R medial superior parietal cortex, L occipital pole, R caudate nucleus, R substantia nigra; R pMTG SLI < SIB: L + R par operculum cortex, L occipital pole Reduced brain activity Speech condition: SLI < TD: L IFG (pars orbitalis ); SLI < SIB: L IFG (pars orbitalis); R IFG (pars triangularis); L pSTG; Speech > Reversed Speech: SLI < TD: L pSTG; R putamen; SLI < SIB: L IFG (pars orbitalis)	Increased grey matter: SLI > TD: L frontal operculum, R anterior insula, L aIPS; SLI > SIB: L aIPS Increased brain activity None
Verhoeven et al, 2012 [20]	SLI (mixed receptive-expressive) <3rd centile ≥1 of 3 subtests of Reynell Taaloontwik-kelingsschalen [65], Taaltests voor Kinderen [66], or Schlichting Test voor Taalproductie [67], and PIQ or FS IQ > 80 [68]	SLI (n = 13; 10 M) TD (n = 12; 8 M)	SLI: 10.1(SD = 0.4) TD for SLI: 10.2(SD = 0.3);	DTI Tractography (Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus, SLF)	In SLI group: WCR subtest and FA both L and R SLF; WCE and left SLF	SLI < all TD: Reduced Fractional anisotropy in SLF	No other ROI measured
de Guibert et al, 2011 [27]	SLI >1SD below mean for phonology, sentence repetition, and morphosyntactic integration [69, 70], and WISC/WAIS [71, 72] ≥ 70	SLI (n = 21, 9 M) TD (n = 18, 9 M)	SLI: 11.4 (7–18) TD: 12.7 (8.7–17.7)	fMRI Silent generation or naming. ROI analyses		Reduced brain activity: Auditory Response Naming: L pSTG/SMG junction	Increased brain activity Phonological difference task: R anterior insula ext to IFG opercularis/ triangularis and caudate head.
Soriano-Mas et al 2009 [25]	DLI Rapin [26] classification: Speech programming deficit (n = 5), phonological-syntactic deficit (n = 18), lexical deficit (n = 8), mixed (n = 5) >1SD below mean PPVT [73], TTFC [74], ITPA [75], and WISC-III [76]. IQ > 85.	SLI (n = 36; 24 M) TD (n = 36; 24 M)	SLI: 10.58(5–17) TD: 10.88 (5–17)	VBM	Older SLI : negative correlation btw verbal IQ and GM R perisylvian region, PPVT + GM occipital petalia	None	Increased grey matter Global volume; R posterior perisylvian, L MOG (occipital petalia) Young SLI > Young TD: L + R entorhinal, L + R temporopolar, L + R caudate nucleus, L + R precentral gyrus, L precuneus, L medial MOG Increased white matter Global volume; Young SLI > Young TD: R medial front cortex, L + R MTG
Lee et al.,2013 [19]	Developmental Language Impairment (DLI) >1.5 SD below mean of language composite (word derivations – subtest of TOAL-4, PPVT-4, token test) [77, 78]. WASI PIQ assessed not used as criteria	DLI (n = 12; 4 M) TD (n = 12;4 M)	DLI: 21.99 TD: 22.06 Overall range 19–25	DTI + Volumetric ROIs: Caudate nucleus; putamen; nucleus accumbens; globus pallidus; thalamus; occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal lobes; hippocampus	negative correlation btw nucleus accumbens; globus palladius; putamen, hippocampus ROIs, whole brain FA + language composite	Reduced grey matter volumes: ICV, L + R caudate nucleus (d = -1.21), L + R thalamus (d = -1.57), occipital lobe (d = -1.54), parietal lobe (d = -1.47), temporal lobe (d = -1.32), frontal lobe (d = -1.50). Reduced FA: Whole brain (d = -2.00); globus pallidus (d = -0.96) thalamus (d = -1.41), occipital lobe (d = -2.25); parietal (d = -1.74); temp (d = -1.58) front (d = -2.27)	Increased grey matter Volumes: When ROI volume corrected for ICV: putamen (d = 1.07), nucleus accumbens (d = 1.0); hippocampus (d = 1.70). Increased FA: None

Article

Study group and selection criteria

Sample size (males)

Mean age (range) in years

Methods

Brain behaviour correlation

Decreases in study group (effect size)

Increases in study group (effect size)

Badcock et al 2012 [29]

SLI

<10th percentile on ≤ 2 language or literacy tests (Ax: CCC-2 [59] or CC-A [60], TROG-2 [61], TOWRE [62], NEPSY [63], and ≥ 80 WASI [64].

SLI (n = 10; 9 M);

SIB (n = 6; 4 M);

TD(n = 16; 7 M)

1. SLI: 13.5 (8–17)

2. SIB: 18 (12–22),

3. TD: 12.50 (6–25)

VBM (whole brain)

fMRI

Silent word association task (“Speech”)

Vs. Passive listening to reversed speech

Not examined

Reduced grey matter:

SLI < TD: Medial frontal pole, L + R pSTS ext. to R STG, R medial superior parietal cortex, L occipital pole, R caudate nucleus, R substantia nigra; R pMTG

SLI < SIB: L + R par operculum cortex, L occipital pole

Reduced brain activity

Speech condition:

SLI < TD: L IFG (pars orbitalis ); SLI < SIB: L IFG (pars orbitalis); R IFG (pars triangularis); L pSTG;

Speech > Reversed Speech:

SLI < TD: L pSTG; R putamen; SLI < SIB: L IFG (pars orbitalis)

Increased grey matter:

SLI > TD: L frontal operculum, R anterior insula, L aIPS;

SLI > SIB: L aIPS

Increased brain activity

None

Verhoeven et al, 2012 [20]

SLI (mixed receptive-expressive)

<3rd centile ≥1 of 3 subtests of Reynell Taaloontwik-kelingsschalen [65], Taaltests voor Kinderen [66], or Schlichting Test voor Taalproductie [67], and PIQ or FS IQ > 80 [68]

SLI (n = 13; 10 M)

TD (n = 12; 8 M)

SLI: 10.1(SD = 0.4)

TD for SLI: 10.2(SD = 0.3);

DTI

Tractography

(Superior

Longitudinal

Fasciculus,

SLF)

In SLI group: WCR subtest and FA both L and R SLF; WCE and left SLF

SLI < all TD: Reduced Fractional anisotropy in SLF

No other ROI measured

de Guibert et al, 2011 [27]

SLI

>1SD below mean for phonology, sentence repetition, and morphosyntactic integration [69, 70], and WISC/WAIS [71, 72] ≥ 70

SLI (n = 21, 9 M)

TD (n = 18, 9 M)

SLI: 11.4 (7–18)

TD: 12.7 (8.7–17.7)

fMRI

Silent generation or naming.

ROI analyses

Reduced brain activity:

Auditory Response Naming: L pSTG/SMG junction

Increased brain activity

Phonological difference task: R anterior insula ext to IFG opercularis/ triangularis and caudate head.

Soriano-Mas et al 2009 [25]

DLI

Rapin [26] classification: Speech programming deficit (n = 5), phonological-syntactic deficit (n = 18), lexical deficit (n = 8), mixed (n = 5)

>1SD below mean PPVT [73], TTFC [74], ITPA [75], and WISC-III [76].

IQ > 85.

SLI (n = 36; 24 M)

TD (n = 36; 24 M)

SLI: 10.58(5–17)

TD: 10.88 (5–17)

VBM

Older SLI : negative correlation btw verbal IQ and GM R perisylvian region, PPVT + GM occipital petalia

None

Increased grey matter

Global volume; R posterior perisylvian, L MOG (occipital petalia)

Young SLI > Young TD: L + R entorhinal, L + R temporopolar, L + R caudate nucleus, L + R precentral gyrus, L precuneus, L medial MOG

Increased white matter

Global volume; Young SLI > Young TD: R medial front cortex, L + R MTG

Lee et al.,2013 [19]

Developmental Language Impairment (DLI)

>1.5 SD below mean of language composite (word derivations – subtest of TOAL-4, PPVT-4, token test) [77, 78].

WASI PIQ assessed not used as criteria

DLI (n = 12; 4 M)

TD (n = 12;4 M)

DLI: 21.99

TD: 22.06

Overall range 19–25

DTI + Volumetric ROIs: Caudate nucleus; putamen; nucleus accumbens; globus pallidus; thalamus; occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal lobes; hippocampus

negative correlation btw nucleus accumbens; globus palladius; putamen, hippocampus ROIs, whole brain FA + language composite

Reduced grey matter volumes:

ICV, L + R caudate nucleus (d = -1.21), L + R thalamus (d = -1.57), occipital lobe (d = -1.54), parietal lobe (d = -1.47), temporal lobe (d = -1.32), frontal lobe (d = -1.50).

Reduced FA:

Whole brain (d = -2.00); globus pallidus (d = -0.96) thalamus (d = -1.41), occipital lobe (d = -2.25); parietal (d = -1.74); temp (d = -1.58) front (d = -2.27)

Increased grey matter Volumes:

When ROI volume corrected for ICV: putamen (d = 1.07), nucleus accumbens (d = 1.0); hippocampus (d = 1.70).

Increased FA: None

Study group here refers to SLI or DLI. Note that diagnoses were made by the authors themselves

Abbreviations: aIPS anterior inferior parietal sulcus, CC-2 Children’s communication checklist version 2, CC-A Communication checklist for adults, DLI developmental language impairment, DTI diffusion tensor imaging, FA fractional anisotropy, GM grey matter, ICV intracranial volume, IFG inferior frontal gyrus, ITPA Illinois test of psycholinguistic abilities, MOG middle occipital gyrus, MTG middle temporal gyrus, NEPSY NEuroPSYchology, PIQ performance intelligence quotient, pMTG posterior middle temporal gyrus, PPVT Peabody picture vocabulary test, pSTG posterior superior temporal gyrus, pSTS posterior superior temporal sulcus, ROI region of interest, SFL superior longitudinal fasciculus, SIB sibling, SLI specific language impairment, STG superior temporal gyrus, TD typically developing, TOWRE Test of Word Reading Efficiency, TROG-2 Test for Reception of Grammar-2, TTFC token test for children, VBM voxel based morphometry, WAIS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales, WASI Wechsler Abbreviated Scales of Intelligence, WCE word classes expressive (CELF subtest), WCR word classes receptive(CELF subtest), WISC Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children.