TABLE 1.
Studies with Validated and Widely Accepted Measures of Nicotine/Cigarette Dependence
| Study Authors | Population/Sample | Findings Related to Validated and Widely Accepted Measures of Nicotine/Cigarette Dependence |
|---|---|---|
| Allen & Unger56 | 432 adult AA smokers | No significant difference by menthol status in odds of higher score on FTND for both women and men. |
| Benowitz et al.95 | 127 adult smokers | No significant difference by menthol status in FTND scores. |
| Brody et al.105 | 63 adult smokers | No statistically significant difference in FTND scores for menthol (mean, 4.1; SD±2.1) and nonmenthol (mean, 3.9; SD±2.4) smokers. |
| Collins & Moolchan82 | 572 adolescent smokers (531 smoked menthol) | No difference in FTND scores. |
| DiFranza et al.102 | 237 adolescents | No difference between menthol and nonmenthol on the HONC. |
| Duncan et al.101 | 1,376 adolescents and young adults (12–33 years), 768 AA (56%) and 610 White | Among ever smokers, AA were statistically significantly less likely to be DSM-IV dependent as compared to White (19.82 vs. 32.81, respectively, p<0.001). |
| Faseru et al.57 | 540 AA light smokers (≤10 cigarettes per day) in a clinical trial for smoking cessation | No significant difference between menthol and nonmenthol smokers on numerous measures, including FTND. |
| Hooper et al.103 | 3,396 current smokers from the Florida 2007 BRFSS | Menthol smokers had statistically significantly lower mean scores on the NDSS in the unadjusted analysis. No significant difference between menthol and nonmenthol smokers in AOR of dependence (NDSS) in the multivariate analysis. |
| Kandel & Chen38 | 12,550 White, 4,903 AA, 4,839 Hispanic current smokers (ages 12 and older) from the NHSDA | Despite higher percentage of menthol, minorities smoked significantly fewer CPD compared with Whites. Whites more likely than African-Americans to be DSM-IV dependent even controlling for CPD. |
| Li et al.74 | 14 and 15 year olds in New Zealand. 2,387 menthol and 11,071 nonmenthol. | The authors reported that the “multiple linear regression model did not find a significant result linking reported HONC score to menthol preference (coef. = –.21, P = .165).” |
| Luo et al.92 | 2,925 White and AA adult smokers (not menthol specific) | African-American smokers had lower FTND scores compared with Whites. |
| Marsh et al.73 | New Zealand youth surveys from 2004 (N = 564), 2006 (N = 334), and 2008 (N = 325) | The authors found, “there was no evidence of an association between use of menthol and HONC scores.” Authors state “However, those preferring menthol-only had lower HONC scores than those preferring only nonmenthol.” Lower HONC scores among menthol-only as compared to those who smoke both types of cigarettes. |
| Moolchan et al.100 | 115 treatment seeking adolescents | African American adolescents had significantly lower FTND scores as compared with those who were not African-Americans. |
| Frost-Pineda et al. reported here | 3,585 adult smokers (1,104 menthol and 2,481 nonmenthol) | No significant increased odds of menthol use for any of the FTND questions. Menthol cigarette smoking did not increase the odds of higher FTND scores regardless of how scores were categorized. Higher FTND scores were not associated with increased odds of smoking menthol cigarettes. |
| Muscat et al.97 | 525 adult smokers | No significant increased odds of high FTND scores vs. low/medium FTND scores among menthol as compared to nonmenthol smokers (OR, 1.1, 95% CI, 0.6, 2.1). |
| Murray et al.80 | 5,887 adult smokers | Among males and among females, respectively, there was no significant effect of menthol on partial FTND scores. |
| Mustonen et al.88 | 307 White and AA adult smokers in a clinical study of NRT. Smoked at least 10 CPD | No difference in FTQ scores between White males, White females, African-American males or African-American females. |
| Okuyemi et al.81 | 600 AA smokers in a bupropion trial | No significant difference in FTND scores for menthol compared to nonmenthol. |
| Okuyemi et al.60 | 480 adult AA smokers at an inner-city health center | No significant difference in FTND scores between menthol and nonmenthol cigarette smokers. |
| Okuyemi et al.68 | 755 AA smokers in smoking cessation trial | No significant difference between menthol and nonmenthol on the NDSS or MNWS (a withdrawal scale). |
| Reitzel et al.104 | ||
| 183 adult smokers (83 menthol and 100 nonmenthol) | There was no statistically significant difference in mean HSI score between menthol (3.60) and nonmenthol (3.73) smokers. | |
| Reitzel et al.98 | 1,067 adult smokers | Menthol smokers had statistically significantly lower mean dependence scores as measured by the HSI (p = .01). |
| Rojewski et al.84 | 166 adult smokers | No significant difference between menthol and nonmenthol smokers in mean FTND scores. |
| Winhusen et al.83 | 510 adult smokers | No statistically significant difference in FTND scores by menthol status. |
AA = African American; AI = American Indian; AN = Alaska Native; AOR = adjusted odds ratio; BRFSS = Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System; CPD = cigarettes per day; FTND = Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence; FTQ = Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire; HONC, Hooked on Nicotine Checklist; HSI = Heaviness of Smoking Index; MNWS = Minnesota Nicotine Withdrawal Scale; NDSS = Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale; NHIS = National Health Interview Survey; NHSDA = National Household Survey on Drug Abuse; NRT = nicotine replacement therapy; PI = Pacific Islander; TTFC = time to first cigarette; TUS CPS = Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Surveys