Table 1.
Characterization of study participants
| A Mother | Lean group | Obese group | Obese GDM group | P-value 1 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of women (n = 44) |
15 |
13 |
16 |
|
|
| Age (year) |
31.1 ± 3.1 |
28.5 ± 4.2 |
32.6 ± 4.8 |
0.040c |
|
| Primiparae (%) [n] |
86.7 [13] |
76.9 [10] |
56.2 [9] |
0.299 |
|
| BMI (kg/m2) before pregnancy |
20.1 (19.5-22.0) |
36.1 (32.2-38.3) |
33.4 (31.1-36.1) |
< 0.001a,b |
|
| Gestational weight gain (kg) |
16.8 ± 4.4 |
11.6 ± 5.6 |
12.1 ± 5.8 |
0.022a,b |
|
| Parental history of diabetes (%) [n] |
13.3 [2] |
38.5 [5] |
43.8 [7] |
0.181 |
|
| Duration of pregnancy (days) |
278.2 ± 8.1 |
279.5 ± 8.2 |
271.3 ± 7.0 |
0.012c |
|
|
Mode of delivery |
|
|
|
|
|
| Spontaneous / cesarean section, n |
9/6 |
6/7 |
6/10 |
0.483 |
|
|
75 g OGTT (mmol/L) |
|
|
|
|
|
| Glucose fasted |
4.22 (3.89-4.39) |
4.33 (4.00-4.63) |
5.11 (4.44-5.56) |
< 0.001b,c |
|
| Glucose 1 h |
7.41 ± 0.90 |
7.34 ± 1.42 |
10.85 ± 1.34 |
< 0.001b,c |
|
| Glucose 2 h |
6.30 ± 0.96 |
6.49 ± 1.21 |
8.00 ± 1.57 |
< 0.001b,c |
|
| Area under curve (AUC) Glucose |
12.54 (11.90-13.24) |
11.85 (11.65-14.10) |
16.37 (16.04-18.13) |
< 0.001b,c |
|
|
Fasted plasma/serum parameters at 3rd trimester | |||||
| Gestational age (weeks) |
33.9 ± 1.4 |
34.3 ± 1.7 |
34.1 ± 1.0 |
0.836 |
|
| Glucose (mmol/L) |
4.10 ± 0.32 |
4.19 ± 0.40 |
4.39 ± 0.28 |
0.161 |
|
| Insulin (μU/mL) |
5.66 (4.76-10.05) |
11.54 (9.28-20.54) |
13.99 (11.22-17.97) |
0.002a,b |
|
| HOMA-IR-index |
1.10 (0.86-1.79) |
2.31 (1.98-4.15) |
2.76 (2.08-3.63) |
0.001a,b |
|
| C-peptide (ng/mL) |
1.60 (1.42-2.23) |
2.99 (2.05-3.51) |
3.01 (2.64-3.14) |
0.002a,b |
|
| HbA1c (%) |
5.32 ± 0.31 |
5.45 ± 0.23 |
5.40 ± 0.28 |
0.474 |
|
| Leptin (ng/mL) |
9.30 (6.52-20.11) |
46.03 (29.84-78.67) |
42.24 (26.71-66.69) |
< 0.001a,b |
|
| Total adiponectin (μg/mL) |
4.98 ± 1.02 |
4.14 ± 1.78 |
3.81 ± 1.39 |
0.071 |
|
| HMW adiponectin (μg/mL) |
2.86 ± 0.82 |
2.06 ± 1.17 |
1.74 ± 0.91 |
0.008b |
|
| SA |
0.57 ± 0.1 |
0.48 ± 0.09 |
0.44 ± 0.07 |
< 0.001a,b |
|
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) |
7.49 ± 1.51 |
6.28 ± 0.96 |
6.60 ± 0.96 |
0.035a |
|
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) |
4.86 ± 1.50 |
3.73 ± 0.87 |
3.92 ± 1.96 |
0.039 |
|
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) |
1.92 ± 0.49 |
1.73 ± 0.45 |
1.88 ± 0.28 |
0.524 |
|
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) |
2.53 ± 0.74 |
2.38 ± 0.57 |
2.76 ± 0.72 |
0.420 |
|
|
B Infant |
Lean group |
Obese group |
Obese GDM group |
P-value
1
|
Adjusted p-value
2
|
| Offspring gender (male/female), n |
8/7 |
8/5 |
13/3 |
0.275 |
|
|
Umbilical cord plasma parameters | |||||
| Glucose (mmol/L) |
4.46 ± 1.13 |
4.42 ± 1.03 |
4.60 ± 1.02 |
0.892 |
0.202 |
| Insulin (μU/mL) |
1.72 (1.08-5.14) |
1.73 (1.33-3.97) |
5.29 (4.21-8.33) |
0.023b,c |
0.014b,c |
| HOMA-IR-index |
0.40 (0.22-1.23) |
0.42 (0.23-0.74) |
1.08 (0.81-1.52) |
0.021b,c |
0.009b,c |
| Leptin (ng/mL) |
5.88 (2.15-9.70) |
7.57 (4.56-16.65) |
6.84 (4.76-11.58) |
0.455 |
0.114 |
| Total adiponectin (μg/mL) |
20.68 ± 6.23 |
20.82 ± 8.56 |
22.03 ± 7.33 |
0.977 |
0.685 |
| HMW adiponectin (μg/mL) |
14.61 ± 5.15 |
14.28 ± 7.02 |
14.75 ± 5.80 |
0.860 |
0.884 |
| SA |
0.70 ± 0.06 |
0.67 ± 0.06 |
0.65 ± 0.08 |
0.292 |
0.348 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) |
1.71 (1.31-1.90) |
1.53 (1.36-1.71) |
1.55 (1.32-1.73) |
0.718 |
0.886 |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) |
0.54 (0.32-0.65) |
0.52 (0.38-0.60) |
0.47 (0.41-0.54) |
0.905 |
0.271 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) |
0.72 (0.67-1.03) |
0.62 (0.60-0.96) |
0.72 (0.57-0.88) |
0.691 |
0.724 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) |
0.35 (0.27-0.52) |
0.35 (0.26-0.45) |
0.40 (0.25-0.46) |
0.959 |
0.847 |
|
Breastfeeding status at week-6 (month-4), n | |||||
| Exclusively breastfed |
10 (8) |
7 (6) |
6 (4) |
0.257 (0.304) |
|
| Formula and breast milk |
0 (2) |
3 (0) |
4 (4) |
||
| Formula only |
5 (5) |
3 (6) |
4 (6) |
||
| Introduction of solid food (months) | 5.0 (5.0-6.0) | 5.0 (4.0-6.0) | 5.0 (4.0-6.0) | 0.411 | |
HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; SA: HMW-total adiponectin ratio.
Data are presented as mean ± SD; otherwise skewed variables are presented as median followed by interquartile range.
1One-way ANOVA with Sidak’s post hoc test or nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis-test with Dunn’s post hoc test.
2Statistical analyses for cord plasma parameters were performed by multiple linear regression models and p-values were adjusted for infant sex and pregnancy duration.
aP-value < 0.05 obese vs. lean group; bp-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. lean group; cp-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. obese group.