Table 3.
Infant adipose tissue growth assessed by skinfold thickness measurements and ultrasonography from week-1 to year-1
| Lean group | Obese group | Obese GDM group | P-value 1 | Adjusted p-value 2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
SFT [mm] |
|
|
|
|
|
| Week-1 |
18.9 ± 3.1 [15] |
20.3 ± 2.6 [13] |
21.6 ± 2.4 [16] |
0.031a |
0.031a |
| Week-6 |
25.2 ± 3.7 [15] |
26.1 ± 5.1 [13] |
30.4 ± 3.4 [12] |
0.007a,b |
0.048a |
| Month-4 |
30.7 ± 6.6 [15] |
31.2 ± 4.3 [11] |
33.6 ± 4.8 [13] |
0.336 |
0.258 |
| Year-1 |
29.0 ± 4.3 [15] |
30.3 ± 4.6 [12] |
29.7 ± 4.8 [14] |
0.749 |
0.536 |
|
Fat mass [g]
3
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Week-1 |
583 ± 139 [15] |
660 ± 114 [13] |
694 ± 117 [16] |
0.051 |
0.042a |
| Week-6 |
1,008 ± 159 [15] |
1,098 ± 285 [13] |
1,307 ± 187 [12] |
0.004a,b |
0.048a |
| Month-4 |
1,581 ± 318 [15] |
1,728 ± 327 [11] |
1,847 ± 328 [13] |
0.108 |
0.184 |
| Year-1 |
2,260 ± 419 [15] |
2,475 ± 536 [12] |
2,444 ± 530 [14] |
0.466 |
0.498 |
|
Trunk-total SFT ratio (%)
4
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Week-1 |
47.4 ± 2.5 [15] |
47.2 ± 3.3 [13] |
48.1 ± 2.9 [16] |
0.630 |
0.958 |
| Week-6 |
48.4 ± 3.2 [15] |
49.4 ± 3.4 [13] |
49.1 ± 2.4 [12] |
0.648 |
0.528 |
| Month-4 |
49.0 ± 4.1 [15] |
48.9 ± 2.4 [11] |
49.6 ± 3.1 [13] |
0.841 |
0.647 |
| Year-1 |
45.1 ± 2.6 [15] |
44.9 ± 2.6 [12] |
48.5 ± 3.3 [14] |
0.002a,b |
0.035a,b |
|
SCA (mm
2
)
5
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Week-1 |
12.7 (9.5-15.4) [12] |
16.7 (14.0-19.9) [12] |
17.7 (16.8-19.4) [12] |
0.020a |
0.014a |
| Week-6 |
24.0 ± 6.6 [15] |
26.5 ± 10.7 [13] |
34.6 ± 7.9 [12] |
0.008a,b |
0.058a |
| Month-4 |
41.3 ± 12.8 [15] |
42.9 ± 9.4 [11] |
45.6 ± 12.7 [13] |
0.644 |
0.458 |
| Year-1 |
24.6 (18.6-27.7) [15] |
29.0 (26.8-36.2) [12] |
34.2 (22.8-43.6) [14] |
0.132 |
0.217 |
|
PPA (mm
2
)
5
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Week-1 |
5.6 (4.9-7.9) [12] |
7.9 (6.3-9.3) [12] |
10.0 (8.9-12.2) [12] |
0.001a |
0.001a,b |
| Week-6 |
10.0 ± 2.7 [15] |
11.4 ± 3.6 [13] |
13.9 ± 2.9 [12] |
0.009a |
0.183 |
| Month-4 |
13.5 (9.7-14.1) [15] |
16.9 (12.1-18.6) [11] |
15.6 (11.5-18.0) [13] |
0.221 |
0.525 |
| Year-1 | 17.5 ± 4.9 [15] | 22.3 ± 7.0 [12] | 20.8 ± 6.7 [14] | 0.130 | 0.368 |
PPA: preperitoneal adipose tissue; SCA: subcutaneous adipose tissue; SFT: sum of the 4 skinfold thickness measurements (biceps + triceps + subscapular + suprailiac).
Data are presented as mean ± SD; otherwise skewed variables are presented as median followed by interquartile range; numbers in brackets represent number of infants included in the analysis.
1One-way ANOVA with Sidak’s post hoc test or nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis-test with Dunn’s post hoc test.
2Statistical analyses were performed by multiple linear regression models. P-values for parameters at week-1 were adjusted for infant sex, pregnancy duration and age at investigation. P-values at week-6, month-4 and year-1 were adjusted for infant sex, pregnancy duration, age at investigation and corresponding breastfeeding status.
aP-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. lean group; bp-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. obese group.
3Fat mass was estimated from the sum of 4 SFTs by using the equations of Weststrate and Deurenberg [22].
4Trunk-total SFT ratio (%) was evaluated by applying the equation (subscapular + suprailiac SFT)/(sum of 4 SFTs) × 100 of Westrate et al. [23].
5SCA and PPA were measured as areas of 1-cm length according to the method of Holzhauer et al. [18]. SCA indicates mean area from axial + sagittal plane.